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X 


HISTORY 


THE PERIYAR PROJECT. 


[Pkice, 10 rv.fees?^ 


[15 MlingnT^ 









Colonel J. PENNYCUICK, R.E,, c.s.i. 



HISTOET 


OF 


THE PEEIYAE PEOJECT. 


COMPILED BY 


A. T. MACKENZIE, m.inst.c.e.. 

» I 

Executive Engineer, Madras P.W.D. 


Igt: a Ir r a s : 

PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, GOVERNMENT PRESS. 















PEEFACE. 


rpHE following account of tlie Peri jar Project has been 
compiled mainly from official reports, supplemented by 
a long personal employment on the works and by information 
from brother officers of the Madras Public Works Depart¬ 
ment similarly engaged. I wish to record my thanks 
to Mr. W. Hughes, Mr. S. D. Pears, Mr. T. W. Smyth, 
Mr. H. T. Keeling, and very specially to Mr. S. Krishnama 
Chariar, without whose assistance an account of the works 
in the plains must have been very meagre; and also to 
Mr.. J. P. Davidson for his help with the plans. 

There is a chapter still to be written upon the agricul¬ 
tural and financial results. From this standpoint the present 
account is twenty years too early, and must be taken merely 
as an engineering history of the inception of the project 
and of the difficulties encountered in its execution. 

Eeferences to individuals would be out of place, but I 
have thought right, with the approval of the Madras Govern¬ 
ment, to introduce as a frontispiece a photograph of the 
remarkable man to whom both the design and the accom¬ 
plishment of the project are chiefly due. Colonel John 
Pennycuick has left in Madras an honoured name, and has 
bequeathed a heritage of exalted ideals which should never 
be sufiered to decline. 



London, 
April 1898. 


A. T. MACKENZIE. 





CONTENTS 


CHAPTEE I. 

PAGE 

The Madura district — Famine — The Periydr investigations for extending 

irrigation — Proposals put forward; estimates and designs finally sanctioned. 5—33 

CHAPTEE II. 

CONSTRUCTION OF HEADWOEKS. 

Preliminary works—Labour and materials—Wire ropeway — Canal—Main 

dam—Escapes—Tunnel—Cost—General remarks . 34-126 

CHAPTER III. 

Amount of water available—Description of distribution works ... ... 127-146 

CHAPTER IV. 

Irrigation—Total expenditure—Returns ... ... ... ... , ... ... 147-lGl 


APPENDIX. 

A Reference to the Possibility of utilizing the Periyar Water for Power, &o. 162 

Table I.—Showing monthly quantities put into the main dam above zero 

level. .. 163 

„ ir. —Rates, main dam and distribution works .. ... 164-168 

„ HI. — List of floating plant ... . ... ... ... ... 168 

„ 17.—Rain register .169-176 

,, V, —Average, maximum and minimum discharges during each month 

from July to February ... ... ... ... ... ... 177 

„ VI. —Estimate of rainfall in the Periykr valley ... ... ... ih, 

, VII, —Estimate of water available for irrigation ... ... ... 178 


INDEX 


••• ««• «(• ••• **• 


179-181 





2 


LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. 


Portrait of Colonel J. Pennycuiok, P E., c.s.l. 

Catchment basins of Perijar and Vaigai rivers (Plate I) 

Major Ryves’ proposal ... 

Lock on Muliapunjan canal ... 

iluliapunjan canal ••• •«« 

Muliapunjan canal ... ... 

Foundation enclosure ... 

Survey of the site of main dam across the river Feriyar 
Sections of the main and temporary dams across the Periyar river 
Method of passing river during construction 
The dam during construction 
The dam during construction 
Method of closing vents for a short lift ... 

The lake from below the dam ... 

Down-streain face of dam ... ... ... 

Dam and rfght bank escape, from up-strearn 
Left bank extension, from up-stream 
Dam and left bank extension, from up-stream 
Sketch of ground on left bank of Periycir ... 

Right bank escape ... ... ... ... 

Right bank escape 

Watershed cutting ... ... ... ... 

Entrance to tunnel ... ... ... 

Plan of upper portion of Periyar, tunnel ... 

Vertical section of sluice well 
The water after leaving the tunnel ... 

Fall on the main canal ... ... 


Frontii^pieoe^ ^ 
To face page 6 


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11 

52 

54 

55 
61 
69 
69 

71 

72 
76 _ 

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86 
88 ‘ 
90 

92 

93 

94 t 
96 
98 

104' 

105 

105 

108 

140 


/ 


LIST OF PLATES. 


</ Plate 








✓ » 




; 


II.—Head works, plan of lake and ground in its immediate neighbourhood with 
contours at 50 feet vertical intervals, 

III, —Map showing Periyar Main and Branch channels with important villages, 

roads, zamins and inam lands. 

IV. —Cross section of dam. 

V,—Plan a.nd section of watershed tunnel, 

VI.—Escape culvert, gates and lifting gear as originally proposed, 

VII.— Longitudinal section along crest of dam and escaspa. 

Vm.—Pl.ap and sectjoit of right bank escape. 







3 


Plats 

IX, 

Sheet 

i.—Periyar head sluices. 

^ » 

1) 

9 ) 

ii.—Periydr screen for sluice. 


)) 

>9 

iii.—Plan of Periy4r head slaice. 

/ » 

X. 

99 

i.—Surplus tunnel in Periyar Main dam. 

y 

n 

99 

ii.—Details of surplus tunnel sluice. 


* „ XI.—Plan of left bank extension. 

/ „ XII.—Longitudinal section of Periyar Main channel, 

y „ XIII.—Survey of anicut Peranai. 

y y, XIV.—Plan of head sluice at Peranai. 

/ „ XV.—Scouring sluice at Peranai. 

y „ XVI.—Plan of fall and bridge combined (1st reach, Main channel), 

/ „ XVII.—Plan of a surplus sluice of 12 vents for Kamarajapuram tank (1st reach). 

,, XVIII.—Plan of an aqueduct of 2 vents (2nd reach). 

- ,, XIX.—No. 3 superpassage (3rd reach). 

. „ XX.—Plan of a superpassage for Marangaliar crossing, Main channel (5th reach), 

. „ XXI.—No. 1 fall and sluices combined (9th Branch channel). 

‘ ,, XXII.—Drop No. 1 in the 12th Branch channel. 

- „ XXIIL—11th Branch channel, fall of 10 feet. 

„ XXIV.—Irrigation sluice (1st reach). 

/ „ XXV.—Iron trough. 

/ „ XXVI.—Type design of 6 feet fall, 
i „ XXVII.—Typo design for diameter pipe sluices. 

,, XXVIII.—A bridge in the 12th Branch channeh 


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SOUTHERN INDIA 


SHEWING 

CATCHMENT BASINS 

OF 

PERIYAR&VA1GA1 RIVERS 


Scale of Miles 


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REFERENCE 

Railways 

- --.— I Limit of Basin 














































PLATE I 
















































































HISTOEY 


OF 

THE PERITAR PROJECT. 


-- 

CHAPTER I. 

The Madura district—Tamiue—The Periyar investigations for extending irrigation. 

Proposals put forward ; estimates and designs finally sanctioned. 

rriHE Madura district of the Madras Presidency is hounded on the 
north by the Trichinopoly district, on the south by the Tinnevelly 
district, on the east by the Bay of Bengal, and on the west by the 
western ghauts. There is but one drainage system of importance in 
the district, the river Vaigai. The present condition of the country 
through which it runs cannot be better described than in the language 
used by Major Eyves, E.E., in a report, dated 7th August 1867. 

“ The principal division of the Madura district, consisting of the three 
taluks—M^liir, Madura and Tirumangalam—is a strip of country running 
north and south ; its eastern boundary marching with the adjoining zamin- 
dary estates of Sivaganga and Eamnad ; and on the west separated from 
the Dindigul division of the district by the mountains and jungle, which 
extend almost continuously from Nattom on the north to Srivilliputtur on 
the south, where they run into the general range of the western ghauts, 
which here separate British territory from the Travancore country. 

“Its area, excluding uninhabited mountain and jungle, is about 1,200 
square miles, with a population of very nearly half a million. 

“ The Yaigai river, passing through the only opening in the hills which 
form the western boundary, flows across the strip ; the length of its course 
between the limits above defined being about 33 miles. In this length 
several river channels are taken off, most of them to fill tanks during the 
short and uncertain periods of Vaigai freshes. The principal channels are 
the Yadakarai, the Tenkarai, the Nellayoor, and the Madacolum. 

“ The two first have the advantage of anicuts across the river at their 
heads; the other two as well as all the other channels are supplied by 
means of temporary spurs (made of grass and sand—corumboos} rim out 
into the river. 



6 


HiSTOEY OF THE [CHAP. 

“ The numerous tanks supplied by the channels were many of them 
first class reservoirs originally, but are now so silted up as to be capable of 
storing not much more than half the quantity of water they were designed 
to hold; they occupy a great deal of valuable land, and, in the attempt to 
get as much water as they require, the ryots of one tank frequently cause 
injury to their neighbours above them, damming up their escape calingulahs 
and flooding land by the extended waterspread. 

“ The tanks having become shallow in proportion to the area of the 
waterspread, there is enormous waste of valuable water by evaporation. 
I calculate that this waste amounts to at least 30 per cent, of the water 
stored. 

“ The character of the Vaigai makes the tanks system essential. For 
some reason or other the quantity of water received into the channel of the 
river bears a very small proportion to the rainfall on its catchment basin. 
The average annual rainfall registered at Periyaculam and Madura is 32 and 
41 inches, respectively. On the Oumbum valley (where no register has been 
kept) it is at least as much as at Periyaculam ; in the Wnrsanaad valley it is 
probably less. Taking it at 33 inches only over the whole catchment basin 
above the Peranny* it would amount to 3,600 millions of cubic yards per 
annum, and supposing that only one-third of this found its way into the 
streams and rivers so as to be available for irrigation there would be more 
than enough (with due allowance for the enormous waste on tanks) for 
three times the extent of paddy crop now raised. 

“ Yet it is affirmed by good authority that, in an average year, not a 
drop of Vaigai water reaches the sea ; but this I think is hardly sufficiently 
well established to be accepted as the fact. My belief is that sufficient 
water for more than double the present area of irrigation does flow down 
the Vaigai, but that three-fourths of the annual supply passes down the 
river at three times the rate at which all the channels together can draw off 
water from it, so that if the big freshes could be detained, so as to spread 
over, say, 60 days, instead of running off at three times the rate in 20 
days, it would be found that there would be water enough (if the tanks 
could contain what it would be necessary to store) for double the area of 
rice-crops. 

“ However this may be, there is no doubt as to the main fact that the 
supply of water obtained from the Vaigai is so precarious and scanty that 
even in good years the paddy crop barely covers 22,000 acres annually, 
although the existing tanks and channels command land enough and have 
sufficient hydraulic capacity, for the irrigation of fully double that extent 


* An anicut near Madura. 



PEEIYAR PROJECT. 


7 


!•] 

of crop if only a sufficient supply of water, delivered at a regular moderate 
rate, be ensured. 

“ This Vaigai irrigation is situated in the Madura taluk, the middle one 
of the three named above. In the Melur taluk there is but one river, 
and that but a small stream, at its northern extremity, under which a small 
extent of land receives a good and certain supply. All the rest of this 
taluk is dependent for irrigation on the local surface drainage, stored in 
small shallow tanks, the majority of them being mere ponds. Situated as 
all the land of this taluk is within a few miles of the watershed, there are 
no well-defined streams; the Allighiry hills form a dyke turning all the 
hill streams to the north and south round the flanks of the taluks. 

“ The North-East monsoon from which this taluk receives what rain it 
does get, is very uncertain so far south and inland, and the mountains to 
the west of it (the streams from which, as above shown, do not flow through 
this taluk) no doubt draw away from it a considerable portion of the rain 
cloud which may have travelled so far. 

“ Under these circumstances it is not surprising that agricultural opera¬ 
tions are seldom rewarded by a good crop. If the ryot is so fortunate 
as not to find the ground as hard as brick at the ploughing season, the 
chances are that rain necessary to bring the crop to maturity will not fall 
at the expected time. ' 

“And the cultivation of wet crops is hardly a less precarious business, 
failure being attended with greater loss, and success attained generally at 
much expense of labour and money on raising water from wells and pools. 

“Almost every alternate season is one of scarcity in this taluk, and, 
when an exceptionally dry year occurs, there is severe distress, and the 
popidation is thinned by death and emigration. In 1861-62, and again 
last year, it suffered severely in this way.” 

The records of the district make constant allusions to famine and 
scarcity, though information of the expenditure for this cause is not 
available till comparatively recent years. During the famine of 
1876-77 Es. 4,32,170 was expended on relief works and Es. 7,92,047 
on gratuitous relief in the Madura district, while in the neighbouring 
districts of Trichinopoly and Tinnevelly, which are partially protected 
by irrigation, the expenditure on relief works was Es. 3,85,394 and 
Bs. 1,48,110, respectively, and on gratuitous relief Es. 1,20,626 and 
Es. 1,27,901. Moreover in a district already containing considerable 
irrigation works the expenditure is far more usefully employed. The 
loss of revenue and of life are quite beyond computation. 

While such is the condition of the Madura district, on the other side 
of the watershed line o^ the western ghauts is an enormous area of 


8 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


uncultivated and uninhabited jungle, with a large and unfailing yearly 
rainfall and with great quantities of water running to waste. Among 
the rivers receiving this drainage is the Periydr. Its sources lie in 
dense unsurveyed jungle and are not accurately known, but it rises 
about 50 miles north-west of Palamcottah, approximately in N. Lat. 
9° 10', and runs from south to north till it reaches IST. Lat. 9° 31'/ 
whore it turns due west for a short distance, during which its course is 
parallel to the watershed and within a few miles of it. It then resumes 
a northerly direction gradually trending westwards, and eventually 
plunges over the edge of the ghauts and reaches the sea near Cochin. 
It is in the short westward course commencing in N. Lat. 9° 3P 
that the investigations for the utilisation of this river were conducted. 

Flowing as the Periydr does through a tract of country entirely 
iminhabited no accurate observations of the rainfall as compared with 
the run-off have been made. The following table is compiled from the 
nearest stations at which observations are made, but no deduction from 
them is reliable, partly because these stations are themselves some dis¬ 
tance away, and partly because even if they were nearer the rainfall 
throughout the western ghauts often varies enormously within a few 
miles. At Peermaad, which is less than 20 miles west of the subsequent 
site of the Periydr dam, the annual rainfall often exceeds 200 inches. 
At Thekadi, which is but 6 miles aw^ay, the fall differed considerably 
both in amount and distribution from what was afterwards observed 
at the Periydr, For the same reasons the observed rainfall at the dam 
site or near it is no measure of the fall over the whole catchment:— 


Month. 

• 

Average recorded rainfall at 

Cochin. 

Trivan¬ 

drum, 

Augusta- 

malai. 

Average. 

Average 
depth run-ofi 
from FerijAr 
catchment in 
1868-72. 

Estimated; 
rainfall at 

1 -8 depth 
run-off. 

January 


•34 

•56 

6-23 

2-38 

2-92 

5-26 

February 


•65 

•39 

2-28 

1-11 

1-54 

2-77 

March. 


1-93 

1-91 

3-18 

2-34 



April ... 

. 

5-30 

5-48 

7-41 

6-06 



May ... 


13-34 

8-87 

30-66 

17-62 



June ... 


28-05 

11-84 

28-64 

22-84 



July ... 


22-47 

• 8-28 

30 96 

20-57 

7-81 

14-05 

August 


12-77 

6-11 

21-86 

13-58 

4-22 

7-60 

September 


8-48 

4-44 

16-46 

9-79 

3-63 

6-53 

October 


12-63 

10-05 

26-04 

16-24 

3-29 

5-92 

November 


4-32 

5-56 

15-58 

8-49 

11-34 

20-41 

December 


-88 

1-52 

9-72 

4-01 

3 18 

5-72 


Total ... 

111-16 

65-01 

199-02 

125-03 

... 

68-27 























peeiyIe peoject. 


9 


!•] 

The average of the three stations in the above table is 125 inches per 
annum, and the average as deduced from the run-off observed during 
the investigations from 1868-72 is 68 inches. The proportion of run-off 
to rainfall may be considered high, but it must be remembered that the 
area of the catchment is comparatively small and in great part sheltered 
from the sun by forest, there are many cloudy and misty days during 
the year, the country is mainly ridges and ravines, and composed of 
rock lightly covered by soil, and tributaries have all rocky beds. For 
purposes of calculation both of floods and of the total available quantity 
of water the rainfall over the whole catchment has generally been taken 
at 100 inches per annum, since the fall during the South-West Monsoon 
was known to be greater, at the site of the dam, than the computation 
from run-off. There is reason however to believe 100 inches to be some¬ 
what over the mark. The records maintained at the dam during its 
construction show an average of about 76 inches, and it was observed 
that the fall due to the South-West Monsoon decreased sensibly during 
its progress eastward. In the most easterly portions of the catchment 
the North-East Monsoon doubtless brings more rain than that recorded 
at the dam site, but its duration is eomparatively so short that it prob¬ 
ably does not make up for the easterly decrease of the South-West 
rainfall. Assuming the average to be 70 inches or 80 inches and the 
catchment to be 250 square miles, the whole of this quantity at any 
rate, less evaporation and small minor abstractions, falls into the 
Periydr, because of the impervious nature of the subsoil ; and though 
the rainfall is variable it never fails altogether. There is obviously 
then an amount of water flowing down the Periydr sufficient for 
a large area of irrigation, could it only be diverted to the plains 
of Madura, and this was the object of the investigations now to be 
described. 

The idea of diverting the Periydr into Madura has existed for an 
unknown time, but merely as an idea. No enquiry was made into its 
practicability till 1808, when the late Sir James Caldwell visited the 
neighbourhood and took a few levels. He however seems to have con¬ 
fined himself to a diversion, pure and simple, by means of a direct 
cutting from the Periydr through the watershed, and finding a rise of 
over 100 feet between these two points he condemned the project as 
“ decidedly chimerical and unworthy of any further regard,’^ which 
as thus conceived it undoubtedly was. The subject was mooted in a 
desultory manner from time to time, and in 1850 a small dam and 


10 


HISTORY OR THK 


[chap. 


Channel were actually begun for diverting a small tributary of the 
Periydr, the Chinna Muhydr, but the work was stopped by fever among 
the coolies and by the excessive wages demanded by them, a forecast of 
two of the principal obstacles which were afterwards encountered. 

It was not till 1862 that the project was revived by Major Eyves 
R.E., in a practical form. This officer and Major Payne spent several 
seasons in local investigations, experiencing great difficulty from the 
uninhabited and inhospitable nature of the country, the incessant rain, 
the absence of paths, the dense jungle and elephant grass, and the 
swarms of leeches ; and also from the fever which was exceedingly rife 
during the dry months. In 1867 Major Eyves submitted detailed pro¬ 
posals including an earthen dam 162 feet in height at the site marked 
No. 1 in the map. An escape was to be made at 142 feet above the 
river-bed, and the water was to be diverted into the valley of the Vaigai 
by a cutting through the; watershed at the point marked A, having its 
sill 17 feet below the'escape crest and a maximum depth of cutting of 
about 52 feet. No provision was made for controlling the discharge 
through the watershed cutting ; but in order to prevent a flow into the 
Suruliydr * beyond what that stream could safely carry, it was proposed 
to construct a reservoir with a capacity of 945 millions of cubic feet 
at some point not fixed between the Suruliydr and the watershed. No 
other provision for storage was made, the project being essentially one 
for the diversion of the river and not for storage of water. Then, as 
afterwards, the principal difficulty was foreseen to be the control of the 
river during the construction of the dam, and it is interesting to note the 
manner in which Major Eyves proposed to deal with it. The unhealthi¬ 
ness of the country limited the working season to the period between 
June and February and the dryest and best months of the year were 
thus lost for working in the river-bed when the discharge was at its 
lowest. The high discharge during the South-West and North-East 
Monsoons stiU further limited the time available for foundations to a 
possible 30 days in August and September, and the 3^ months commenc¬ 
ing with December. Starting with these premises Major Eyves proposed 
to begin work in June by depositing large rough stone in the river-bed 
to a height of -f 32, leaving a clear opening of 45 feet on the left flank 
through which he judged the river would flow with a velocity of about 5 
feet a second, with a surface level of -f 3. As soon after the North-East 


The large tributary of the Vaigai in whose bed the Periyar was to flow. 





20 10 

. I 1_ I __ _-1 -:- 1 -1- 

400 350 300 260 200 150 


Scale to s( 
Scale 

_l- \ - U 

100 50 0 




Reg: No. 4586 
Copies. 410 




































































































































































































































I.] 


pebiyIr project. 


il 


Monsoon as the discharge fell to 750 cubic feet a second the surface 
level would be raised to +12 by a temporary dam across the 45 foot 
gap, the water flowing through the interstices in the stone dam. In the 
comparatively still water thus induced a front bund (a) was to be made 
by depositing earth from boats to a level of +8. Four syphons 4 feet 
diameter were then to be put up and filled, to take the whole discharge 
of the river ; the temporary dam across the gap was to be removed, and 
the surface level in front would fall to + 8 leaving the top of bund (a) 
dry, it being protected during the fall of the water by a covering of 
halved bamboos lashed together and weighted with stones. A rear bund 
of earth (d) could then be completed and the enclosed space pumped dry. 

The bottom layers of puddle lining and of the main earthen dam 
could then be carried on inside, and at the same time the front and rear 
bunds (a) and (5) and the stone dam raised. When the front and rear 
bunds reached +20 and +15 two of the syphons were to be raised, fol¬ 
lowed by the other two, and their former positions made good. The 
whole was thus to be raised in two foot layers, the bunds (a) and (6) 
always 5 feet to 10 feet higher than the enclosed space, and the stone 
dam 15 feet higher, with a comer always left open for the discharge of 
casual freshes. By the middle of February Maj or By ves calculated that 
the earth and puddle would have reached a level of + 25, and the stone 
dam would be continued across the gap and be at a level of + 42. In 
this condition he intended to leave the work till the next season, the rear 
bund (d) being covered with halved bamboos loaded with stone, his 
computation being that the proportion of the river discharge which per¬ 
colated through the stone dam would have a velocity of only 1^ feet 
a second, while that flowing over the top would run at about 6|- feet 
a second. A certain amount of damage would, he allowed, occur to the 
rear slope of the stone dam, but not enough to materially endanger it. 

So far as Major Eyves’ observations showed the stone dam at this 
level was capable of passing through its interstices the whole discharge 
of the river from June to November for 9 days out of 10. He therefore 
considered that this dam might be continued throughout the whole of the 
working season, and also the earth and puddle on one flank. During the 
dry season the latter would be brought up to a umform level the whole 
way across, and in this manner he calculated that by the fourth season the 
work would be brought up to the level of a saddle at +110, across which 
all the water would then be passed, and from this point onwards the 
ptone dam in rear could be discontinued. On the completion of the main, 


12 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


dam the saddle was to be built up with masonry to a level of +142, at 
which it would be left as a permanent escape. He even believed that 
the whole work could be completed in four seasons, or in three if very 
dry and favourable, but he thought it advisable to allow the longer 
period in order to give the earth plenty of time to settle. 

The approximate cost Major Eyves placed roughly at the following 
figures:— 

BS. 


Prehminary works 
Dam and escape 
Cutting through watershed 
Eegulating reservoirs 
Works in the Suruliyar .. 
Distribution works 


11,000'j 
8,67,000 I 
3,12,000 

75,000 49,000. 

80,000 j 

4,04,000J 


These figures, as well as the general proposals, are instructive as show¬ 
ing in how gradual a manner a true appreciation arose not only of the 
magnitude of the scheme and the expense attending it, but also of the 
special difficulties and uncertainties that must inevitably attach to its 
accomplishment. But those were the days when the name of Arthur 
Cotton was fresh in the land and the Gloddvari and Kistna Irrigation 
Projects had just been successfully established, and it was the tradition 
of the Madras Engineers to shrink from no task, however gigantic, and 
to make light of all obstacles. 


The details of the scheme described above came in for considerable 
criticism, although there was a general consensus of opinion as to its 
advisability; but it was recognised that,the available information was as 
yet insufficient, and further investigations were committed to the charge 
of Lieutenant Pennycuick, E.E., and, after that officer’s departure to 
England on medical certificate in 1870, to the late Mr. E. Smith; and 
during their enquiries a certain amount of road and path-making was 
carried on in the neighbourhood to improve the communications against 
the time when they should be wanted and to accustom labourers to the 
strange environment. As the situation grew clearer it became evident 
that the expense would be much greater than had been imagined and- 
that it would be hazardous to attempt to control the river during con¬ 
struction in the manner proposed by Major Eyves. Though the essen¬ 
tial features of his scheme were retained numerous modifications were 
suggested. These were principally of the nature of culverts under or 
through the dam or tunnels round the flanks, and laboured under the 


periyIr project. 


13 


I.] 


disadvantage of enormous cost as long as the dam was of earth with a 
very wide base and the necessity of allowing no water to flow over 
it was paramount. The inherent disabilities of an earthen dam more 
than 150 feet high were considered to have been overcome by the use 
of the “ Silting process,’^ of which much was at that time expected. 
Meanwhile two new sites^ marked 2 and 3 on the plans, were examined 
and found to possess material advantages over No. 1, but these were 
ultimately abandoned in favour of the site marked 4, 7 miles lower 
down the river, which was, in many respects, superior to all the upper 
sites. The river bed here [is 34 feet lower than No. 1 site, but, by its 
adoption, the water can cross the watershed at the point marked B, 
which is 47 feet lower than A, showing a saving of 13 feet in the height 
to be overcome. The ground between the sites 1 and 4 is flat and 
open as compared with that above No. 1, so that a dam 168 feet high 
at No. 4 stores more than double the quantity impounded by a dam 
of 220 feet at No. 2, while the drainage area available is 305 square 
miles against 250. No. 4 site was therefore definitely adopted, and it 
was further decided that the relative levels of dam and offtake should be 
such as to allow of the storage of sufl&cient water to overcome aU fluctu¬ 
ations in the discharge of the river, and to allow a regular equable 
supply to be passed, under complete control, into the Suruli valley. A 
project complete in all details was finally submitted by Mr. R. Smith in 
April 1872. His proposals included— 

(1) A dam, 175 feet in height, to be constructed of earth by the 
silting process, with an escape 400 feet in length blasted out of the 
saddle on the right flank of the dam. The construction of the dam 
involved, as a subsidiary work, the excavation of a tunnel 423 feet in 
length with an area of 1,064 square feet, with cuttings at each end 
aggregating in contents nearly 4J millions of cubic feet for the passage 
of the water temporarily. 

(2) A tunnel 7,000 feet in length under the watershed ridge, with 
cuttings at its two ends. The sill of the cutting on the lake side was 
to be 113 feet above the river bed, the space between this level and that 
of the escape crest (-f 144) allowing 6,815 millions of cubic feet of water 
to be stored. For controlling the entrance of water into the tunnel an 
elaborate system of regulating sluices estimated to cost Rs. 71,000 was 
provided. 

(3) A series of regulating sluices for passing the Periydr watex 
round the flanks of the various anicuts on the Suruliydr. 


14 


HISTORY OP THE [CHAP. 

(4) Works for the distribution of water for the irrigation of 
150,000 acres of land in the Madura and M61ur taluks. 

The total cost of the project was estimated at Es. 63,99,700, exclusive 
of interest, indirect charges, and any payment to the Travancore Govern¬ 
ment for the use of the water. The returns were estimated at Es. 6,94,000 
less 10 per cent, for maintenance. 

Mr. Smith’s proposals were generally approved, but the execution of 
the project was opposed by General Walker, E.E., then Chief Engineer, 
mainly on the ground that sufficient experience had not been gained 
of the silting process to justify entire confidence in it for a work of such 
magnitude. He suggested certain qualified proposals, some of which 
had already been considered and rejected; and further consideration 
showed that the proj ect must be carried out in its entirety or not at all. 

The advisability of constructing a masonry instead of a silt dam 
was also mooted, and a further report was called for from Captain 
Pennycuick and Mr. Smith. Mr. E. Smith stated that he had at one 
time been in favour of a masonry dam and that he would have prepared 
a detailed estimate for it when maturing the Periydr scheme, had not 
his approximate calculations indicated that such a structure would be 
too costly to recommend. He considered that to close the valley with 
a waU of first-class rubble masonry would require an outlay of 19 
lakhs of rupees, and he assumed that such masonry would cost over 
Es. 29 per 100 cubic feet, while his estimate for the silt dam was 
5’226 lakhs of rupees. Of all the estimates submitted from beginning to 
end it may be remarked that this of Mr. E. Smith’s for a masonry dam 
was by far the nearest to the actual cost eventually incurred. Captain 
Pennycuick reported more at length, first on the arrangements for passing 
the river freshes imder the dam during construction, and secondly on 
the substitution of masonry for earth or silt. As to the first point his 
estimate for an area of 1,064 square feet was— 


. RS. 

For a tunnel .. .. .. .. v., 5,63,500 

For a masonry culvert .. .. .. .. 5,20,000 

For a cement concrete culvert .. ,, .. 7,50,000 

For an area of 600 square feet his estimate was— 

For a tunnel . .. ,, 4,50,000 

For a masonry culvert .. .. ,. .. 3,00,000 

For a cement concrete culvert .. .» .. 4,20,000 





«•] 


peeiyXb pboject. 


16 


Withi regard to the second point Captain Pennycuiok proposed a 
dam with section based on Molesworth’s formula and having front and 
rear faces of solid masonry with longitudinal and cross walls of the 
same materials, 6 feet thick, the cells formed by these walls being filled 
with concrete. 

These arrangements and the details of construction were objected to 
as involving risk of unequal settlement, and Captain Pennycuiok in later 
proposals gave the objection due weight. He also reconsidered the ques¬ 
tion of allowing the freshes to pass over the dam during construction or 
of passing them under it, and in the event of the latter arrangement 
being preferred he proposed to form culverts having a waterway of 
1,800 square feet so as to reduce the velocity of discharge. This was a 
matter of importance, since the highest then recorded flood represented 
a discharge of nearly 50,000 cubic feet a second, involving a velocity 
even with this area of nearly 23 feet a second. It will be seen that 
two principles were gradually being established, first that it was practi¬ 
cally impossible to prevent the occasional submersion of the dam during 
construction, and second that this precluded the idea of an earthen dam 
in any form. At that time large masonry dams were little known to 
any but French Engineers, and the hesitation in admitting the necessity 
for one is easily comprehensible. 

The G-ovemment of Madras wished the whole matter referred to 
the best English opinion and with this recommendation forwarded 
the estimates to the Government of India. The latter, however, con¬ 
sidered that the experience of Engineers in India in the construction of 
irrigation works must far exceed that of Engineers of any other 
country in the world and they offered to appoint a committee of high 
standing, selected from Bengal, to which an officer of the Madras 
Public Works Department having complete knowledge of the locality 
and of the details of the project might be added. This not meeting the 
views of the Government of Madras, the enquiry into the probable returns 
of revenue not being completed, and the severe famine of 1876-77 at 
that time occupying all funds as well as all attention, the matter was 
temporarily put aside, but meanwhile the Revenue Department continued 
their enquiries and ultimately reported that an eventual net return of 
Es. 5,99,000 per annum might fairly be looked for. 

No further action of a pra,ctical nature was taken during the ensuing 
six years; but there was a great deal of desultory discussion, in the 
course of which the arrangements gradually took a definite and less 


16 


HISTORY OP THE 


[chap. 


debatable shape, while the conviction that the substitution of masonry 
or concrete was a necessity deepened in the minds of aU the officers who 
considered the subject. Finally the whole of the papers were handed 
over to Major Pennycnick, who was directed by an order, dated the 8th 
May 1882, to be relieved of other duty with a view to his under¬ 
taking- the revision of the plans and estimates for the entire project; and 
this officer submitted in the same year a report, with detailed estimates 
which were eventually sanctioned. Such of the proposals as relate to 
the head works are here reproduced in extenso, in order to mark the 
departures which took place during actual construction. 

“ The height of the dam proper is to be 155 feet from the bed of the 
river, with a parapet 5 feet in height and 4 feet in thickness. The thick¬ 
ness of the dam proper is to be 12 feet at the top and 115f feet at the 
lowest part. It is to be constructed throughout of concrete, composed of 
25 parts by measure of hydraulic lime (ground but not slaked), 30 of sand, 
and 100 of broken stone. 

“ The front face is to be plastered with plaster composed of equal parts 
of lime and sand. 

“ The lime will be ground, the stone broken and the concrete mixed by 
machinery driven by a turbine, the power for working which will be obtained 
from the river itself. 

“ The concrete will be conveyed from the machines to the point where it 
is required for use by a wire tramway, and rammed by machine. 

“ A. temporary dam, 30 feet in maximum height, will be constructed 
above the site of the main dam, and a similar dam 10 feet in height below the 
site to enable it to be completely cleared and the foundation trenches blasted 
out before the main dam is begun. These dams will be constructed of 
material similar to that of the main dam. 

“ In order to provide for the passage of river water during construction, 
two culverts with an area of 96 square feet each will be cut through the 
rock on the left bank of tbe river; they will be closed by an equilibrium 
shutter with gearing so designed that the velocity through the culvert can 
never exceed 20 feet per second, but that subject to this limit the gate shall 
open or close 3 feet for every foot of rise or fall in the level of the water 
above the dam. 

“ On tbe right bank will be a similar culvert with one-fourth of the area 
for supplying the turbine which drives the hianufacturing machinery. The 
gearing of the shutters of this culvert will be so arranged that, under 
ordinary circumstances, it will pass only the amount of water required for 
the turbine, but that on emergency it may be made to pass any quantity 


PERIYAE PROJECT. 


17 


I.] 

np to a maximum of 960 cubic feet a second, giving a maximum velocity 
of 20 feet per second. 

“The two culverts will thus pass if necessary 4,800 cubic feet a second, 
and so long as the discharge of the river does not exceed this amount (that 
is, for 19 days out of 20), the water level above the dam may be maintained 
at any desired level, from which it will not vary by more than 2 feet at 
the most. 

“ For the formation of escapes two saddles, one on each bank, will be 
utilised. That on the right bank has solid rock at a minimum level of 
+ 154 and will be cut down for a length of 420 feet to a level of + 144. 

“ On the left bank the solid rock is at a level of + 104, and the saddle will 
be built across with material similar to that of the main dam to the same 
level (+ 144) as that of the right bank escape. The wall thus formed will 
have a length on its crest of 403 feet ; and a further length of 97 feet, 
making 500 feet in all, wiU be obtained by cutting away the rock at its two 
ends. The two escapes will thus have an aggregate length of 920 feet. 
At a distance of 60 feet from the escape wall on the left bank wiU be built 
a second wall 10 feet in height, with its crest 30 feet below that of the first 
wall, to form a water cushion. 

“ In the valley of the Muliapanjan (a tributary of the Periyar on the 
right bank) a cutting will be started at + 113, running northwards, 21 
feet broad with a fall of 1 in 440. When the depth of the cutting (in rock) 
reaches 30 feet, which will be at a distance of 5,400 feet from its starting 
point, it will be replaced by a tunnel with an area of 80 square feet and a 
fall of 1 in 75. At its lower end the tunnel will communicate with the bed 
of the small stream, up whose valley the Gudalur Ghaut Eoad now runs, by 
a cutting similar to that at its southern end. The length of this cutting 
will be 160 feet and of the tunnel 6,650 feet. 

“ At the entrance of the tunnel will be placed an equilibrium sluice 
similar in principle to that used for the escape culverts under the main dam, 
by which the discharge can either be regulated at pleasure or maintained 
automatically at any fixed amount. 

“ The existing Gudalur Ghaut Eoad on the main line of communication 
between Madras and Travancore passes close to the mouth of the tunnel, 
about 8 miles from the site of the dam. From this point a road will be 
constructed to the dam for the conveyance of materials, stores, &c. fraction 
engines will be used for the purpose, as the nature of the ground admits of 
a remarkably favourable trace, there being no gradient against the traffic of 
more than 1 in 600, while fuel is cheap and animal power exceedingly dear. 
For the conveyance of lime, grain and all materials which can be carried 
in small parcels up the ghaut a wire tramway will be used, the ghaut road 
being only used for articles too heavy to be carried in this manner. 

c 


18 


HISTOBY OP THB 


[chap. 


“The working season in the Periydr valley is from the burst of the 
South-West Monsoon in June to the end of February, and as the few days of 
June which will be available for work will usually be absorbed in the collec¬ 
tion of labour and preliminary arrangements for the season’s work, the net 
working time is taken at 8 months of 25 days each or 200 days in all. The 
head works are estimated to take five seasons in construction, besides one 
of preliminary work which will be taken up by the construction of the road 
and laying out of the buildings, clearing of ground, and similar matters. 
The cuttings of the escape culverts and the erection of macliinery will be 
taken in hand immediately on the opening of the following season, and 
during August and September when the discharge of the river is small the 
temporary dams will be built. By October of this season it is expected that 
the actual construction of the main dam will be begun. 

“The surveys show clearly enough that there is no site above that chosen 
which can in any way be compared to it, it is also known that there is no 
depression in the watershed ridge lower than that at the Gtidalur Ghaut 
head, while the fall of the river below the site is exceedingly rapid (25 feet 
per mile) and it turns away in a north-westerly direction, thus diverging 
from the watershed ridge. The rock, both in the river bed and on the 
watershed ridge, is a hard sienite, free from fissures, and suitable both ag 
a foundation for the dam and a material for its construction. 

“The levels of escape crest and cutting sill are the same as those 
provided in Mr. Smith’s project, which are the most suitable taking aU 
points into consideration, whether the dam be of earth or masonry. In 
order to store the same amount of water between the sill of the cutting and 
the crest of the escape the relative levels would have to be— 


Cutting Bill. 

Escape. 

Top of dam. 

Cost. 




tAXHS. 

0 

116 

130 

3838 

26 

116 

131 

36-94 

60 

120 

136 

32-13 

76 

127 

141 

29-14 

100 

137 

160 

27-85 

110 

142 

164 

27-60 

120 

148 

169 

27-76 

130 

166 

166 

28-34 


“ There is very little variation in the total cost between the 100 and 120 
levels; the level chosen is, on the whole, the most economical, and has the 
additional advantage that it gives a length of tunnel and a content of dam 









fERlYAR PROJECT. 


19 


I.] 

which can conveniently he execnted in the same time without the use of 
shafts for the former. 

“ Most modern dams of any magnitude have been built of uncoursed 
rubble masonry. Concrete is nothing more than uncoursed rubble reduced 
to its simplest form ; as regards resistance to crushing or to percolation the 
value of the two materials is identical, unless it be considered as a point in 
favour of concrete that it must be solid, while rubble may, if the super¬ 
vision be defective, contain void spaces not filled with mortar. The selection 
between the two depends entirely on their relative cost. In many cases, 
probably in the majority, the cost of preparing the stone and of mixing and 
laying the concrete exceeds that of building the rubble, the quantities of 
materials in both being practically identical. At the Periyar, however, 
skilled labour is abnormally expensive and difiicult to procure in large 
quantities, while the facilities for the use of labour-saving machinery, which 
can be largely used in the manufacture of concrete, are unusually great. 
On this ground after full discussion it has been decided to adopt the latter 
material. 

“ The analysis of the lime to be used shows a great similarity to the well- 
known ‘ Theil ’ lime employed on all the large dams near 8t. Etienne and 
on the Suez and Port Said harbour works. A limit of crushing resistance 
equal to that allowed in the French dams may be accepted. The principle 
on which the pressures on the rear slope are calculated forms the subject 
of a separate note; calculated on this principle the Ban dam has a maxi¬ 
mum pressure of 17,985 lb. on the square foot, and the La Terrasse 
19,783 lb. I have not been able to obtain a section of the Furens dam 
in sufB-cient detail to enable the pressure to be accurately calculated, but it 
is about the same as in the Ban, or about 18,000 lb. on the square foot. The 
section designed by Eankine in his memorandum in connection with the 
Bombay water works would have a maximum pressure of 22,058 lb. It is 
considered therefore that the limit of 18,000 lb. may safely be adopted, and 
the section has been designed to fulfil the following conditions :— 

(1) That the lines of pressure shall always fall within the middle 
third of the dam. 

(2) That the pressure on neither face shall exceed 18,000 lb. on the 
square foot. 

“With the reservoir entirely empty, there will be a trifling excess of 
pressure on the front face, but this case will not occur in practice, as the 
water level will never fall below 113 feet above the river bed, and the con¬ 
ditions would be fulfilled even were it 28 feet lower than this. During 
construction the water level will be raised to +90 or + 100 before the 
tipper 80 feet of the dam is built. 


20 


HISTORY OF THE 


[CHAF. 


“ The quantities have been estimated on the supposition that every 
hundred cubic feet of concrete -will require 60 cubic feet of solid stone plus 
10 per cent for wastage, 25 cubic feet of unslaked lime and 30 cubic feet 
of saud. The two latter materials will make 45 cubic feet of mortar, so 
that the allowances are rather in excess of what will be wanted in practice. 
Surki is not required, the lime being naturally hydraulic. Excellent sand 
is procurable from the bed of the river.” 

Then follows a detailed description of the machinery with which 
Captain Pennycuick proposed to break the stone, prepare mortar, mix 
concrete, convey it to the workspot, and ram it. Such of this niachi- 
nery as was eventually used will be treated separately. As to the 
motive power his report is as follows :— 

“ The circumstances so obviously enjoin the use of water-power that a 
discussion upon the point seems unnecessary, but it may be worth while to 
state briefly the relative cost of water and steam for the 200 H.P. required 
at the dam site. The cost of the former is— 


Turbine, shafting, &c. 
r.Repairs and maintenance 

Labour . 

Culverts and regulating gear 


RS. 

15,000 

6,000 

3,000 

14,000 


38,000 

Less the stone used in the installation, otherwise available 

for the dam . 8,700 


or Es. 146^ per horse power. 

Eor steam the cost would be— 

One 20 H.P. portable engine 
Repairs and maintenance 
Beltiug, &c. ... ... 

Fuel, lubrication, and water 
Attendance . 


29,300 


Rs. 

7.500 

2.500 
.1,500 

6.500 
2,000 


or Es. 567 per horse power. 


Total per 30 net H.P. ... 20,000 


“ A single fixed engine would be rather more economical as to first cost, 
fuel, and attendance, but the cost of setting and foundations would be very 
great, and for many reasons if steam were used at all it would be in the 
form of a number of portable engines. The difference between the cost of 
steam and that of water would thus be not less than Es. 94,000, while the 












I.] 


peeiyIk project. 


21 


latter has the additional advantage of being capable of increase fully 30 
per cent, if required, at a merely nominal expense. 

“ The length of the right bank escape is fixed by the quantity of stone 
required for the dam. The total required is 3,600,000 cubic feet, of which 
1,400,000 are brought from the watershed cuttings, the cost of conveyance 
being less than quarrying afresh. About 600,000 cubic feet is available 
from the temporary escape cuttings, from the foundation trenches, the left 
bank escape, and from boulders and loose rock removed in clearing the 
ground, leaving a balance of 1,600,000 cubic feet to be obtained from the 
right bank escape. The length required to give this quantity is about 420 
feet, making with the escape on the left bank a total of 920 feet. 

“ Taking the total at 900 feet and the discharge from the highest recorded 
flood (a very remarkable flood indeed) it is calculated that the water level 
would be raised to +153T5. The level of +155 has, therefore, been taken 
as the maximum for which the dimensions of the dam are calculated. 


Method of disposing of 
water during construction. 


“ The method of disposing of the water of the river during construction 
has been the subject of much discussion, and 
as there has been some misunderstanding as to 
the objects to be attained by the temporary 
escapes, it seems desirable to consider somewhat at length what these 
objects really are. 

“In an earthen dam it is essential that under no circumstances whatever 
. shall a drop of water ever pass over the top of the dam, and, given the 
discharge of the river and the rate at which the work can proceed, the area 
of escape necessary is a matter of direct calculation. 

“ In the case of a masonry dam, however, the conditions are entirely 
different; it is necessary that the water should be diverted so as to allow 
the bed to be laid bare and the foundations properly put in ; but for this, 
which can, if required, be done at a dry time, a very small area of escape 
culvert is required, and once the foundations are fairly in, there is no 
necessity for diverting the river at all. It is only necessary to screen off the 
particular portion of the dam which happens to be still unset, and the water 
may be allowed to pass freely over the remainder. As a fact, many dams, 
both in Europe and in India, have been constructed in this manner, 

“ The passing of the water under rather than over the dam is purely a 
matter of convenience and economy—convenience as avoiding too frequent 
interruptions, and economy because it may very well be that the constant 
shifting of frames and protective apparatus will actually cost more than an 
escape culvert of moderate size. 

“ It is obvious then that no comparison of the areas of culvert required 
for a masonry dam and for one of earth has any value; for the latter "we 


22 


HiSTORt OP THE 




must spend whatever sum may be necessary to prevent all chance of its 
being submerged, for the latter it would be folly to spend a couple of lakhs 
of rupees to prevent a submersion which may possibly cost a thousand. 

“It is evidently impossible to fix with anything approaching mathe¬ 
matical precision what is the particular area of escape culvert which will give 
the right degree of protection without undue expense; the principle on which 
the dimensions actually proposed have been arrived at is that the culverts 
should be capable of passing without submersion of the work, all discharges 
of which we have records in any months except July and November, that is, 
that the possible interruptions should be confined to those two months, and 
that the velocity through the culverts shall not exceed 20 feet per second. 

“ The area of culvert necessary to fulfil these conditions depends upon the 
amount of storage available between the top of the temporary dam and the 
level at which the water is maintained during ordinary times, as it is the 
difference between this amount and the maximum discharge of the river 
during any given period which the culverts must pass. 

“ With a given level of temporary dam, we can, by lowering the normal 
water level, reduce the area of the escape culverts; but at the same time we 
reduce the head available for working the turbines and increase the cost of 
the latter, or vice versd. 

‘ ‘ On the other hand, by raising the temporary dam, we can save on the 
turbines or escape culverts or on both. By lowering it we reverse the 
process. 

“The following table shows approximately (allowing for the value of 
stone) the cost of the temporary dams, escape culverts and turbines for 
various levels :— 


Height of temporary dam. 

20 

25 

1 30 

35 

40 

a 

fio . 

RS. 

64,000 

RS. 

67,000 

RS. 

69,000 

RS. 

71,000 

RS. 

75,000 

® § 

15 . 

51,000 

53,000 

55,000 

57,000 

61,000 

S g 

o - 

20 . 

... 

49,000 

51,000 

54,000 

57,090 

I'd 

25 . 



48,000 

50,000 

53,000 

ii 

30 . 

... 


... 

50,000 

53,000 


^35 . 

... 

... 


... 

53,000 


“ There is very little difference in cost among the levels from 20 feet 
to 40 feet; those chosen, 30 feet and 25 feet are preferred not so much as 
being the most economical, as because they are, on the whole, the most 
convenient for practical working. 



















I.] 


periyIb project. 


23 


“ In order to pass all discharges of which we have records, with these 
levels, the total area required is about 230 square feetj the area provided 
is 240. 

# 

“With the limiting velocity of 20 feet per second these culverts will 
discharge 4,800 cubic feet per second; in the three years of which we have 
records, there were altogether 30 occasions, of which 16 were in November 
and 6 in July, on which the discharge of the river exceeded this amount; 
on 16 of these occasions the discharge lasted only for a few hours, and 
would not seriously raise the water level above the dam; the effect of the 
remainder is shown in detail elsewhere. 

“ It will be there seen that, with the area of culvert adopted, there were 
altogether three occasions, extending over six days, on which the work 
would be topped during the first season, four during the second, two during 
the third, and one during the fourth. 

“ During the fifth season no fiood that has ever occurred could top the 
work, because in that season the saddle on the left bank will be available 
for the discharge of surplus; and in the fourth season none except the 
great fiood of November 1869. 

“ Assuming that the three seasons of which we have records represent a 
fair average, we may expect to be interrupted three times during November 
of the first season, twice during the second, and possibly once or twice 
during the third, with a remote chance of an interruption in the fourth. 

“ It will also be seen that an increase in the area of culvert from 240 to 
400 square feet would only save five out of the total of ten interruptions 
entered, while a reduction to 200 feet would increase the number to 15. 

“ To prevent such a fiood as that of November 1869 from passing over the 
work even during the third season would require an area of 2,700 square 
feet, the cost of which would be out of all proportion to any possible damage 
that could occur from the submersion of the work for a few hours. 

“ On the whole the area chosen appears to form the most reasonable 
compromise between undue risk of inconvenience and loss by the interruption 
of work and undue expenditure on insurance against such risk. 

“ It is obvious that, in order to limit the velocity through the culvert, we 
must either have the means of completely controlling the entrance of water 
thereto, or make its area so great as to limit the rise to the extent necessary 
for generating that velocity. 

“ In Mr. Smith’s design the tunnel mouth was uncontrolled, and with the 
area given of 1,064 square feet a velocity of 45 feet per second would be 
generated during a fiood such as that of November 1869. To keep down 
to the lower limit of 20 feet here proposed, an area of some 6,000 square 
feet would be necessary. 


24 


HISTORY OP THE 


[chap. 


“ It is to meet this difficulty that the equilibrium shutters shown on sheets 
10 and 11 have been designed. The pressure of the water is taken entirely 
hy the ties connecting the shutters which are adjusted so as not quite to touch 
the faces of the irames against which they work; there is thus no friction, 
and only the weight of the shutter has to he moved. 

“In order to reduce this weight, four wrought-ironpipes 30 inches in 
diameter and J of an inch thick are introduced, the buoyancy of which is 
very nearly enough to cause the whole gate to float; the actual downward 
tendency is about 400 pounds and this is all that has to be moved in order 
to open the gate. 

“ There is nothing, in the whole construction, different in kind from the 
work in an ordinary steam boiler and there is no more difficulty in making 
the whole apparatus water-tight under a pressure of 60 lb. on the square 
inch than in making a locomotive boiler steam-tight under double that 
pressure ; but in order to provide against any leakage into the pipes (which 
would increase the weight to be moved) screw plugs are provided, which 
may be removed from time to time, the gates being let down for the purpose, 
and any water that may have leaked in may then be pumped out. 

“ The tension on the tie rods is 5,303 lbs. per square inch under 150 feet 
of water. 

“ The shutters will be adjusted so as to have a clearance of ^of an inch 
between themselves and the frames at the culvert mouth, and to prevent 
leakage through this space when the work is completed, the frames shown 
in detail on sheet 11 will be introduced. By means of these frames a strip 
of vulcanised India rubber will be screwed tightly over the opening, and the 
passage of water completely prevented. 

“ An incidental advantage of this form of gate is that it may be used to 
allow the passage of water into the river below the dam, if at any time such 
passage should become necessary, either in order that the water may be 
used there, or that the lake may be emptied. 

“ The entrance to the culvert up to 20 feet from the face of the main dam 
is formed by tunnelling through the solid rock, as 
it is thought that there will be less chance of 
percolation through the rock than through the concrete if an open cutting 
was made and arched over; the cost is about the same. 

“It is for this portion only that the velocity of 20 feet per second is 
adopted ; for the remainder of the length the total area is 412 square feet, 
and the velocity is 9‘32 feet per second. 

“ This latter portion is simply an open cutting 16 feet wide covered by an 
arch with a radius of 20 feet (forming an arc of 53°) and a depth at_the 
side of 6 feet. 


Construction of culvert. 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


25 




“ The support is removed from under the dam where the culvert comes 
in, and the pressure on the material has to he 

“The width of the cuttings is 16 feet and the 
extra pressure may he considered to he distributed over a similar distance 
on each side and over half the depth of the arch at the abutments; in 
other words, the pressure due to 48 feet has to be borne by 38, and the 
maximum pressure will be f| X 12,741 = 16,094 pounds on the square 
foot, the limit allowable being 18,000 lb. 

“ The peculiar form adopted for the entrance tunnels is rendered neces* 
sary by the steepness of the rock on this side which prevents the use of 
the simpler and cheaper form adopted on the right bank, 

“ The excavation of the mouth of each culvert will be made a little in 

, , excess of the standard dimensions so as to allow 

Fitting of frames. 

of the easy fitting of the iron face frames; the 
gates will be lowered into position and the frames set up at the right 
distance from them, the space between the latter and the rock being 
then packed in with fine mortar of lime ar d sand in equal quantities. 

, , “ The gearing for working the gates is shown 

Gearing for shutters. 6 b 6 6 

in Plate III. 


“The gate is carried at one end of a beam 30 feet in length working 
on a pivot at the other end. 

“ Attached to a point 10 feet from the pivot end is a chain connected to a 
buoy of sufficient floating powder to lift the gate. The length of this chain 
is adjustable at pleasure so as to give the opening necessary to pass the 
normal discharge of the river at any level at which it may be desired to 
retain the water surface ; an increased discharge raises the water level and 
increases the opening; a diminished discharge has the opposite efifect. 

“ It is necessary to prevent the gate from rising to a height sufficient to 
gener.ate a velocity exceeding 20 feet per second, w^hatever be the head on 
the front face. 

“ The buoy A carries a light chain coiled round a drum B fixed to the 
bottom of the cutting; connected with the drum B is a drum 0 with a 
diameter 3/20th that of B, round which is coiled a chain passing over the 
pulley D and attached to the axle and rollers E ; as the water rises, the 
rollers are drawn along by the chain between the beam EG and the 
lifting lever, and the travel of the latter is limited by the position of the 
rollers; as the water falls the rollers are drawn back by the weight H. 

D 


HISTOEY OF THE 


[chap. 


26 

“The inclination and position of the beam FG is found by calculation 
and is such that the maximum possible lift of the gate for any water level is 

32 

^-^being the difference between the water levels above and below the 

dam; with a velocity equal to 5\/h. the discharge will therefore be 1,920 
cubic feet per second for each culvert. 

“ This is the maximum discharge possible ; below this limit the discharge 
is regulated entirely by the level of the lake, the main lifting buoy is of 
course submerged when the regulating gear comes into play. 

“The form given to the guiding beam F'G gives correct results for 
depths 30 feet, 50 feet, 90 feet, and 130 feet; for intermediate levels the 
results are not quite accurate as the face should have a slight curve instead 
of being a straight line, but the error nowhere amounts to more than 3 
per cent. 

“ If a greater velocity than 20 feet per second be considered permissible, 
the inclination of the beam FG can be altered accordingly; but it would 
be unadvisable to make any reduction in the area of the sluices, as the head 
necessary to give this velocity is nearly as much as it is convenient to allow 
during the early part of the work; the extra velocity should be used to give 
additional discharge and reduce the risk of submersion. 

“The following mode of construction will be adopted for the portion of 
the temporary dam which is within the ordinary 
Temporary dam. -v^ater spread of the river. Cases 18 feet by 5 feet 

by 10 feet internal dimensions will be sunk in the bed of the river 
at intervals of 15 feet from centre to centre, and kept in position by 
iron rods jumped into the rock at their four corners; they will be made 
as water-tight as possible and the interior will be pumped dry and 
the lower part of each buttress and of the wall attached to it constructed 
inside them, the full height being completed in the ordinary way. A 
groove 6 inches broad and 1 foot deep will be left in each side of each buttress 
at 6 feet from the front face; there will then be a series of 18 piers 5 
feet wide with openings 10 feet wide between them, extending across the 
river bed. Nine of these openings will be closed by shutters 10 feet high 
let down in front of the buttresses and in the grooves in their sides, and the 
spaces thus enclosed built up to 5 feet; the shutters will then be removed 
and the other nine openings built up in the same way to 10 feet; then 
the first 9 to 15 feet and so on, until the whole stream is carried by the 
escape culverts. 

“ The discharge of the river during August and September rarely exceeds 
12,000 cubic feet per second, which the 90 feet of opening always left will 
pass with a depth of about 3 feet, so that work will not be liable to much 
interruption. 



PERIYAR PROJECT. 


27 


I.] 


“ The lower dam will not be begun till the upper one is finished, and 
being constructed in practically still water will be an easy job. 

“ When the lower dam is completed, the space between the two dams 
will be puftiped dry, and the foundations of the main dam put in. 

“The watershed cutting is a work of an ordinary description, and 

requires no special notice ; if the slope of the 

Watershed cutting. , / , ’ 

cutting and tunnel were the same, the latter 

should begin when the former reached the depth at which the cost per 

foot of advance was the same for both, which, with the dimensions and 

prices here adopted, would be 27 feet; but as the slope of the tunnel is 

greater than that of the cutting, the total length is diminished by reducing 

the proportion of the former, and it is economical to extend the cutting a 

Httle further, and the proper depth for the change becomes 30 feet as 

adopted. 

“ The nominal area of the tunnel is 80 square feet, but to provide 
against slight irregularities in the excavation an 

Watershed tunnel. square feet has been provided for. A 

heading of 42 square feet will be first excavated, and afterwards enlarged 
to the full area. 

“ It would be inconvenient to work for any distance from the upper end 
of a tunnel with a slope of one in seventy-five, and only 350 feet of the 
whole length of 6,650 feet will be thus done, the remainder or 900 days’ 
work at 7 feet per day being done from the lower end. 

“ The boring for the heading for this 6,300 feet wiU be done by machines 
driven by compressed air; it could be done somewhat cheaper by hand, but 
in this case we could not reckon on an advance of more than 2^ feet and 
3 feet per day, and two shafts would be necessary, the cost of which would 
more than cover any saving in boring. 

“Four driUs will be employed, and there is no doubt that the advance of 
7 feet per day, or 74 cubic feet for each drill, can easily be obtained. At 
the St. Gothard the advance with six drills was from 10 feet to 12 feet on a 
heading with an area of 67 square feet, or from 112 to 134 cubic feet per 
diem for each drill. The estimates of the daily work of the drills are very 
moderate as compared with actual experience both in Europe and America. 

“ The boring for the enlargement of the principal tunnel and for the 
whole of that portion which is executed from the upper end will be done by 
hand. The heading will be kept only so far in advance of the enlargement 
as to prevent the workmen from interfering with one another, as the firing 
of the charges for both will be done at the same time. 

“Artificial ventilation will probably be required after the first 
3,000 feet, and provision has been made for the exhaustion of 6,000 cubic 


28 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


feet of air per minute. The amount of dynamite exploded daily will be 
about 58 lb., the gases generated by which will occupy about 20,000 cubic 
feet or about 1/300 part of the fresh supply in 16 hours. About 2,000 cubic 
feet of air per day will also be supplied by the drilling machines. At the 
St. Gothard, where the consumption of djnamite was about 600 lb. per day, 
the drilling machines supplied 5,000,000 cubic feet of air per day, and the 
exhausters extracted 16,000 per minute. 

“About 40 horse power for 14 hours will be wanted for working the 
compressors, and 25 horse power for ten hours for driving the ghaut wire 
tramway. It is proposed to obtain this power from the Muliapanjan, the 
^stream up whose valley the Gudalur Ghaut runs. By a turbine placed 
near the mouth of the tunnel, we can easily get a/head of 60 feet, so that 
the quantity of water required will be 8 cubic feet per second. 

“ This stream receives the drainage of a portion of the stream of the same 
name on the Travancore side of the watershed, which has been diverted 
into it by a dam at the point shown on the general survey, and certainly 
supplies more than the quantity required for six months of the season. 
During Jannary and February it may fall short and will be supplemented 
by steam po ver, for which provision has been made in the estimate. 

“The average discharge of the stream during the whole season is con¬ 
siderably more than 8 cubic feet per second ; and if a site could be found 
where some 30,000,000 of cubic feet could be stored at a rate not exceeding 
one rupee for 4,000 cubic feet, this would be more economical than to use 
steam, but the possibility is doubted. 

“It is not impossible that it may be found worth while to convey the 
whole of the power required for working the drills and ghaut tramway by 
means of electricity from the Periyar, where the extra power required can be 
provided at a small cost; but the information at present available as to the 
real cost of the electrical transmission of power is so vague that no reliance 
can be placed upon it. 

“ The entry of water to the tunnel will be controlled by the gates shown 
on sheet No. 16, these gates are similar in principle to those already 
described for the escape culverts. They have an aggregate area of 120 
square feet, that of the main tunnel being only 80. The reason of this is 
that if, as is not unhkel}’’, the water supply is found greater than is now 
anticipated, the main tunnel can be enlarged at small expense, but it would 
be awkward and inconvenient to enlarge the gates and entrance tunnels, 
which would necessitate not only sacrificing the original gates and frames, 
but also lowering the lake so as to leave the sill of the cutting exposed, 
which could not be done without opening the escape culverts under the dam. 


I.] 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


29 


“ The transport of materials is a very important item in the cost of the 


Transport of materials. 


work some 80 tons of limestone and the stores 


Various methods con¬ 
sidered. 


and food for the whole working party having to be 
transported daily from the lime quarries to the watershed up a ghaut 
1,200 feet in height, and some 45 tons of lime and stores, besides 1,500 
cubic feet of stone weighing upwards of 100 tons from the watershed to the 
site of the dam. 

“ Estimates have been made with considerable care for all sorts of means 
of transport, including railway worked by locomo¬ 
tives and by wire rope, tramways, ordinary road 
worked both by steam and by cattle, and water 
transport; and it is found that, on the whole, the most satisfactory 
arrangements are those now to be explained. 

“ The main line of road from Madras to Travancore, of which the Guda- 
lur Ghaut forms a part, crosses the watershed close to the site of the 
proposed works, and then diverges to the west from the valley leading 
to the site of the dam, and cannot be used for transport beyond the 
watershed. 

“ The lime quarries are situated at from 3 to 4 miles from the foot of the 
ghaut, and the quantity of stone to be carried 
foot of about 80 tons; this can be 'carried from 

the quarries to the foot of the ghaut by a single 
traction engine making five trips daily. 

“■ The use of traction engines on the ghaut is objectionable on account 
of the great waste of power in working on a steep 
gradient and the awkward turns and zigzags which 
occur in several places ; the engines returning 
with the empty trucks could not run at their full speed of 8 miles an 
hour, as they can on more level ground, and 4 miles an hour woiild probably 
be as much as would be safe. Although the ghaut is only 4 miles in length 
it is probable that three trips daily would be as much as the engines could 
do. The total weight to be carried daily including a small allowance for 
general stores is about 200,000 lb.; and as the engines intended to be 
employed, which on a level will take 60,000 lb. (exclusive of trucks) with 
ease, would not take more than 16 or 17,000 on an incline of 1 in 16, four 
such engines would be necessary. The first cost of engines and wagons 
would be Rs. 42,000, repairs and maintenance Es. 14,000 and working 
expenses Rs. 40,000 ; to which must be added Rs. 8,000 for the improve¬ 
ment of some of the worst turns in the road, and Rs. 10,000 (at Rs. 500 
per mile for five years) for maintenance, as the allowance made by the 
Local Fund Board will certainly not keep the road in a condition to allow 
steam to be used economically. 


Traction engines from 
lime quarries to 
ghaut. 


Objections to their use 
on ghaut. 


so 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


“The total cost of transport for this section would thus be about 
Hs. 1,14,000, a sum probably not much less than the cost of transport by 
ordinary carts, though there might be a difficulty in getting the latter in 
sufficient numbers.- 

“ It is therefore proposed to use a wire tramway which, for such a position, 
possesses immense advantages. It can be worked 
tramway!^^^^ ® gradient of 1 in 4 and can be laid 

BO as to avoid all the zigzags necessary in a road, 
and thus effect a great saving in distance, while there is absolutely no waste 
of pow^er caused by the incline, the difference between the power required 
to work a given length on a level and the same length on any gradient 
being simply that required to lift the net paying load the vertical height 
between the top and bottom of the line. 

“ To show how great this waste is on an ordinary road, the 200,000 lb. 
of goods here in question would be carried over a level line of 4 miles in 
length with the greatest ease by a single light engine indicating 25 horse 
power, whereas for the same distance on an incline of 1 in 16, four engines 
of 40 horse power are required, showing an extra work of 135 horse power 
due to 'the incline alone, the actual difference in useful work being only 

^ ^— 200,000 horse power for 10 hours, and this latter 

16 33,000 X 600 ® ^ ’ 


quantity with an addition of 25 j)er cent, for friction is all that has to be 
provided in a wire tramway on account of the rise. 

“ The length of the existing ghaut is a few feet over 4 miles; the distance 
from top to bottom as the crow flies is 10,400 feet; the length of tramway 
provided is 12,000 feet, which is rather more than will be required as it can 
be laid very nearly in a straight line. The first cost of the tramway will 
be E.S. 30,000; carriage, erection, maintenance and working Es. 26,000, 
while the power required will be about 30 horse power. This, as already 
explained, will be provided by the same turbine as works the air compressors 
for the watershed tunnel, and the share of its cost debitable to the ghaut will 
be Es. 4,000 making a total cost of Es. 60,000 for the transport over this 
section. 

“ For articles too heavy to be carried by the wire tramway (or exceed¬ 
ing about 3 cwt.) the existing ghaut road will be 
Ghaut to be used for j , j.-, ^ , 

heavy articles. used, but the movement ot such articles will be 

almost entirely confined to a few days at the 
beginning and end of each season. 

“ Some saving in transport would be effected by burning the lime at the 
quarries instead of at the watershed as proposed, but it is considered that 
this is of less importance than the improvement in supervision effected by 
having the kilns above the ghaut where they will be under the eye of one 
of the officers employed on the work. 




i-i 


PEEIYi.R project. 


31 


Road. 


“ From the head of the ghaut to the site of the dam the superior economy 

Head of ghaut to river. tramway is less decided as there is less 

room for saving either in distance or cost of work¬ 
ing ; and as some means of transport capable of conveying heavy weights 
must be constructed, the saving in the every day work by the use of the 
tramway does not justify its construction in addition to such other means. 
These other means are water, railway and road. 

“The first of these is undoubtedly the cheapest in every way as by a 

series of dams in the Muliapanjan and Kythery 

AVtttor transport* , 

valleys, it could be obtained at a cost less than 

that of a road, while as regards working expenses it would be decidedly 
cheaper ; but it would be impossible to use it without interfering with the 
work in the southern cutting, and the idea has had, though reluctantly, 
to be abandoned. 

“ A light railway would cost in working about Es. 40,000 less than the 

sum estimated for the road, but it would cost in 
Railway. , . , . _ 

construction and maintenance Rs. 60,000 more 

and would probably be more liable to injury from accidental causes. 

“ In Mr. Smith’s original designs it was proposed to keep the road above 
the maximum water-level of the lake, involving a 
length of more than 19 miles from the head of the 
ghaut to the dam, but this is quite unnecessary, all that is wanted being 
that the road shall not be liable to submersion as long as it is required 
for use. After the completion of the work it will be useless and even 
before that time a portion of it will have been superseded by water carriage. 

“ Starting from the watershed at a level of 168 above datum, it falls at 
the rate of 1 in 150 for 4,500 feet, and then rises 
Trace adopted. 6,000 feet keeping as close as 

possible to the side of the cutting. It runs level for 500 feet, and then 
rises at 1 in 600 to the saddle between the Muliajianjan and Nataman’s 
.valleys, which it crosses at 23,000 feet from the watershed at a level of 
143 ; after 200 feet level it falls 1 in 60 to the Nataman’s stream, which 
it crosses at 27,000 feet on a level of 83 being about 21 feet above the bed 
of the stream. 

“ It is level from 26,800 to 27,800 and then rises at 1 in 600 for 6,000 to 
the saddle above the junction of the Kythery and Nataman's valleys, which 
it crosses at a level of 93 ; a further distance of 6,200 feet on a level com* 
pletes the line. 

“The total distance from the head of the ghaut to the works is 
40,000 feet or a little over 7| miles, and it will be seen that the line is 
exceptionally favourable, there being no gradient against the traffic except 
1 in 600 


32 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


“ The work to be done during the first three seasons is the conveyance 
of 90,000 lb. of lime and stores from near the 
Traffic to be carried. watershed to the site of the dam, a distance of 

miles and of 1,300 cubic feet of stone weighing 210,000 lb. from the 
southern end of the watershed-cutting, an average distance of about 6 
miles. 

“Two engines of the class provided will do this with three trips each per 
day, one from the watershed and two from the cutting, the speed being 
from 3^ to 4 jmiles an hour loaded, and 8 miles when returning with empty 
trucks. 

“ During the two seasons the water-level will be raised to about 60 feet 
above datum, and the engines will only be required 
Water transport to be carry the material to the point where the road 
crosses the Nataman’s valley, from whence they 
will be conveyed in boats to the dam. This 
shortens the distance to be run by about 2 miles, enabling the engines to 
make three trips daily instead of two from the cutting and to carry 1,900 
cubic feet of stone instead of 1,300. 

“ The actual cost of transport, including all charges, amounts to three- 
fourths of a rupee per ton, or Es. 5-35 per 100 
cubic feet of stone, from the cutting to the dam 
site, the cost of excavation at the latter being Es. 7'50 per 100 cubic feet. 

‘ ‘ From an economical point of view it would be advantageous to use in 
the dam the whole of the stone (about 1,600,000 cubic feet) excavated from 
the southern watershed cutting and adjacent portion of the tunnel, but it 
is not considered desirable to reduce the length of the escape below the 
900 feet provided for.” 


used during the two last 
seasons. 


Total cost of transport. 


After the submission of the estimates a somewhat academic discussion 
ensued as to the method of calculating the section of the main dam. 
A usual method, that of M. Bouvier generally followed by French 
Engineers, maintains that the true method of ascertaining the pressure on 
the material of a dam at any section is to consider the resultant of the 
forces as acting on a projection of the plane of the section at right 
angles to the direction of the resultant. Colonel Pennycuick, however, 
contended that the resrdtant does not and cannot act upon any base except 
the section involved, and tliat there is no reason for transferring the 
effect from the actual base to any imaginary line. The discussion was 
terminated by the decision to employ at any point the method which 
gave the greatest section. The error, if any, is therefore on the side of 
safety, though the difference between the two is nowhere large. 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


33 


!•] 


In compliance witli the wishes of the Inspector-Greneral of Irrigation, 
who took exception to the proposals for disposing of the river during 
construction, an alternative method of syphons was worked out and 
submitted. This plan never came to trial and need not be further 
referred to. 

The submission of these estimates completed the’investigating portion 
of the project, but there was still one obstacle to its execution, namely, 
a disagreement as to the terms on which the use of the water and the 
land submerged by the reservoir should be handed over. 

The British Grovernment took the ground that the water was useless 
and likely to remain useless to Travanoore, and that the land was a piece 
of uninhabited j ungle, not of great value even in the matter of timber 
and from its location practically impossible for the Travanoore Govern¬ 
ment to exploit, The latter Government, on the other hand, contended 
that the value should be appraised by its utility to the British Govern¬ 
ment, which was admittedly high, since an expenditure of Es. 53,00,000 
was expected to bring in a return of 7 per cent, per annum. After 
pom-parlers extending over a considerable period, which it is unnecessary 
to further particularise, it was agreed that the British Government should 
pay an annual rent of Es. 40,000, and that the lease should run for 999 
years, with right of renewal; and that, for this eonsideration, the British 
Government should receive a grant of the land alongside the Periydr 
below a contour line 155 feet above the deepest bed of the river at the 
site of the dam, to the amount of 8,000 acres or thereabouts, and also 
an additional area not exceeding 100 acres at an unspecified level; all 
water flowing into the first-mentioned tract; all timber growing on the 
said tract; and the fishing rights; with liberty to make a road through 
Travanoore territory to the site of the works. All sovereign rights were 
reserved by the State of Travanoore, and the subsequent intricacies of 
civil and criminal jurisdiction, abkdri rights, customs, &c., constituted a 
source of dissension which lasted till the head works were completed. 



34 


HISTORY OY THE 


[chap. 


CHAPTER II. 

CONSTRUCTION OF HEADWORK8. 

Preliminary works—Labour and materials—Wire ropeway—Canal—Main dam-- 
Escapes—Tunnel — Cost— General remsrks. 

Formal sanction to tlie project, was received in the latter half of 1887, 
and proceedings were commenced in September of that year with a small 
establishment. The weather was good and the season in Madura had 
been bad, so that the supply of labour was encouraging. A cooly camp 
and officers’ camp were laid out at Tekadi, near the tunnel head, a mile 
from the trunk road, on a ridge surrounded by swamps, the only con¬ 
venient location but one which was afterwards found to be exceedingly 
unhealthy. A road communicating with the trunk road was opened up, 
but was not continued to the Periyar itself, since it had been decided to 
canalise the Muliya Panjdn and substitute water for land carriage. A 
saving of Es. 50,000 was expected from this alone, but the result was by 
no means in accordance with that expectation, and eventually a road had 
to be made as an auxihary to the canal. In the meantime, however, a 
bridle path was made to the Periydr and one subordinate was located 
there. The line of the watershed cutting was laid out and some earthwork 
done, and the rock so far exposed in places as to permit blasting to be 
commenced, the stone being used for houses. Lord Connemara, then 
Q-overnor of Madras, accompanied by Colonel Hasted, E.E., Secretary to 
Government, visited the works and inaugurated them by felhng a tree 
on the site of the dam. By the end of March 1888 the preliminary 
work may be said to have been completed. It consisted, besides the road 
and bridle path and the camp above mentioned, in the construction of 
quarters for officers and subordinates together with a certain amount of 
eoohe-hnes, store-sheds, hospital accommodation, &c., all of which had, 
however, to be greatly extended before the work progressed very far. It 
also comprised the survey and demarcation of the site of the main dam, 
of the canal, of the tunnel, and of the wire ropeway up the ghaut. 
A small reservoir for the tunnel turbine was also prepared by building 


n.] 


tERIYlR PROJECT. 


35 


a wall across the Muliya Paiijdn near its head in a favourable position 
for storage, and a eommencement was made on the cuttings at the 
entrance and exit of the tunnel. 

Here the subject of labour may conveniently be taken up, since it 
had by this time become evident that a change in the organisation and 
method of employment was essential. To encourage labour all malo 
coolies were at first employed at a daily -wage of 6 annas and not by^the 
piece. The maistries vrere any men who could read or write and had the 
courage (or were under the necessity) to enter this unknown land. They 
were wdthout exception quite ignorant of their work, though there were 
men among them w'ho afterw^ards became very useful. The officers and 
subordinates were insufficient for the incessant demands on them, and it 
was soon discovered that the earthwork was costing over 500 per cent, 
more than the estimated rate and this only for top soil with a small lead 
and in fine weather. 

The coolies were, therefore, divided into gangs and put on piecework 
and immediately left the place almost to a man. To dispose of this 
subject it may be said here that the piecework system was of course 
persisted in and the organisation of labour was a long and difiicult 
affair. Advances had to be made and mutually beneficial relations 
estabhshed with a good class of coolies, and it was not till 1890 that the 
supply became at all adequate. The delay and inconvenience were of 
course very great and added not a little to the cares of the staff. A 
great number of the coolies came from the Cumbum valley in the 
Madura district and were within reach of their homes. The high wages 
necessarily paid gave them a command of money to which they were 
unaccustomed, and the temptation to return frequently to their villages 
and enjoy themselves was too powerful to be withstood, and every 
festival of any importance was a welcome excuse. Most or all of these 
coolies were pledged to money-lenders and ryots from whom they had 
received advances in cash or grain, and they returned unfailingly at 
ploughing or harvest time to work off their debts, with an honesty that 
was admirable from one point of view, but most vexatious from another. 
As the works advanced a better and more permanent class of cooly was 
obtained from Tinnevelly. These had less temptation to irregularity, 
and working (in a manner somewhat unusual) in gangs on a co-operative 
system greater dependence could be placed on their movements. These 
coolies came up regularly during July and took up on piece-work nearly 
the whole of the concrete in the main dam, at which they worked 


36 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


steadily till the end of March. They were the backbone of the labour, 
and the relations between them and the works were mutually profitable. 

In 1889 and again in 1890 detaehments from the First and Fourth 
Pioneers were lent for service at the Periydr. While labour was scarce, 
bad, and ill-organised, the Pioneers were of great service and the officers 
made a welcome addition socially. Certain drawbacks however attached 
to the arrangement. The men being of course under the orders of their 
own officers only, were sometimes difficult to supervise effectually unless 
working in large bodies, which was not always practicable. Having 
fixed hours they were also not always available on an emergency and 
were generally reluctant to work over-time even at the most critical 
junctures. The quality of their work was also very unequal and they 
were expensive, and occasional unpleasantnesses and differences occurred 
which it required tact and forbearance on both sides to prevent from 
becoming serious; while the exigencies of military service sometimes 
clashed with the interests of the works. After 1890 therefore the 
services of the Pioneers were not utilised, and labour having by this 
time become more regular and abundant the loss was not markedly 
perceptible. 

As regards skilled labour the conditions were, on the whole, easier 
than was anticipated. From the first there was no serious trouble about 
carpenters, since a supply of Portuguese under a most excellent foreman 
named P. Fernando, was obtained from Cochin. Occasionally it was 
wished that the number could have been greater, but though these 
carpenters were kept very fully employed and often had to work over¬ 
time and at night they were generally enough or nearly enough for the 
calls upon them. They were capital workmen, handy, willing and 
honest, and some of them being sailors and all more or less accustomed to 
water from their childhood they were of the greatest service for many 
other purposes than pure joinery. A great part of the work in water 
connected with the numerous coffer-dams, temporary sluices, timbering, 
shoring, and scaffolding, fell upon them, frequently by night and in 
the rain and cold, and they were always willing and knowledgeable. 
From beginning to end they were of the greatest service. They were 
sober, quiet, religious men, and it was a pleasure to work with them. 

Masons are a far less pleasing topic. Masons all over the world 
seem to need more supervision than any other class of artisans, and 
Indian majons are perhaps at the head of the profession in this 
particular. The rate of pay was neeessarily high and any ambitious 


II.] 


PEEIYAR PROJECT. 


37 


cooly wlio could borrow or steal a pair of old boots and a trowel presented 
himself unblushingly for the job. Their sole idea was haste and the 
quality of the work turned out by them was sueh that the most stringent 
supervision and severe penalties were required. The rubble masonry 
at the Periydr may be said to vary from fair to good, and certainly 
resisted admirably all the vicissitudes to which it was constantly exposed, 
but this result must be admitted to be due principally to the excellenee 
of the materials and the watchfulness of the staff, and was attained in 
spite of, not beeause of, the masons. In the early days few masons were 
available and most of the temporary work in the river-bed was done by 
‘Wudders’ from the Madura district. These men have no real know¬ 
ledge of masonry, their nearest approach to it being revetment work 
and an occasional rough wall of stone in clay. Being, however, accustomed 
to quarry, break, and handle stone they were useful for the class of work 
required in the temporary piers and the dams in the river-bed. Shortly 
after them a gang from Cutch turned up, unexpeetedly, and did good 
work on the foundation enelosnres. They speedily found out, however, 
that keeping shops in the eamp and selling to the coolies at 200 or 300 
per eent. profit was easier and more lucrative, and most of them turned 
their attention to this and to the acquisition of large herds of buffaloes. 
A few remained on the works as “Jaddi-men,” e.e,, carriers of heavy 
weights by poles and slings, and these were useful among the maehinery. 
Later , on a good many masons were attracted from Coimbatore and 
from Madura, and though there were seldom more than a hundred all 
told, they were from this time generally enough for current require¬ 
ments, but in the ease of damage to temporary works or breaches in 
the turbine ehannel to the workshed, masons had to be diverted from 
their legitimate work on the upstream and downstream faces of the main 
dam. Throughout the duration of the work the want of elasticity in the 
supply of labour was seriously felt. The Periydr is so barbarous and so 
far from everywhere that nothing could be got on a sudden, and unfore¬ 
seen emergencies had to be met always from the material and personnel 
whieh happened to be on the spot at the moment. 

In a work of this nature a vast amount of quarrying was required, 
and in this partieular little difficulty was experienced. Drillers are 
numerous both in Madura and on the West Coast, and the supply was 
adequate and the rate moderate. These men worked mostly single- 
handed and used the “ jumper ” or vertical drill raised and dropped on to 
the rock. Where specially deep holes were wanted two men sojnetimei^ 


38 


HISTOEY OF THE 


[chap. 


worked at a long drill, but generally it was found that a 3' or 3|' hole 
was the deepest they could economically produce. They were useful 
labourers and gave little trouble, their principal drawback being that 
they could only drill vertical holes of not more than 1" in diameter. A 
bigger bore would have led to considerable economy in explosives. In 
the tunnel machine-drills were almost exclusively employed, and these 
were worked by men who had done similar work elsewhere and were 
brought by the tunnel foreman under whom they had served before. 
On occasions when the machine drills were unavoidably stopped or in 
places where they could not be profitably used these men worked double- 
handed with a short drill and hammer. Their duty, in wet and cold 
and a foul atmosphere, was arduous and necessarily well paid. They 
displayed a deep and well-founded confidence in the tunnel foreman and 
were not at any time a cause of anxiety. 

Coolies, masons, carpenters, and drillers have now been touched on 
and the only other remaining class of labour of importance is drivers 
and fitters. These gave perhaps more trouble than all the rest together. 
It was found impossible, at any reasonable rates of pay, to get together 
a staff at once capable and reliable. Many of the men of this class who 
came to the Periydr were men with a history, and these almost invari¬ 
ably alternated spells of good work with outbreaks of a more or less 
serious nature. Some of the drivers and fitters wore caught very you ng 
and practically trained on the work, but these naturally required a 
great deal of supervision, which on distant parts of the work it was not 
possible to give. Accidents v/ere consequently frequent, and any 
accident that could not be repaired on the spot necessitated a stoppage 
of the machine for several weeks, if not months. There was, during the 
early part of the project, a disposition to keep down the pay of fitters 
and drivers, which had a very unfortunate result; and it was some 
time before it became apparent that a very highly enhanced pay was 
necessary to induce even inferior men to live at the Periydr. When 
this fact was at last established the calibre at once improved, and a few 
men of knowledge and character were obtained, whose services were 
invaluable; but the average was at all times low. The office of the 
Superintendent of Plant and Machinery was in consequence one of 
peculiar difficulty, and the project is very largely indebted to a young, 
but most talented and energetic officer, Mr. E. E. Logan, for his unfail¬ 
ing resource and unremitting exertions in this post. The plant comprised 
three steam tugs, an oil-launch, a large and several small dredgers, two 


«•] 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


89 


complete tunnelling- plants, all the workshop machinery, besides a large 
number of portable engines, pumps, &c., so that the office of Superin¬ 
tendent was very far from being a sinecure. 

Materials. 

Before resuming the history of construction the materials used and 
the methods of preparation need a short description. 

The stone throughout the Travancore hills is a hard syenite, weighing 
about 180 lb. to the cubic foot. It formed 
an excellent foundation for the dam, being fairly 
free from cracks and fissures and remarkably homogeneous. It blasted 
well and broke up clean and sharp for concrete, but dressed exceedingly 
badly and was useless for ashlar. The small quantity of this description of 
work required was done with stone procured ready dressed from Madura. 
A portion of the stone used in the main dam and left bank extension 
was procured from the excavation for the right bank escape and the rest 
from quarries. The rock cropped out in numerous places and there was 
no difficulty in finding convenient quarries. Boulders were also utilised, 
the outside scale being removed with pick or chisel. The fractures of the 
quarried stone were so clean and sharp that washing with a water jet was 
unneeded, but with stone broken in machines for concrete precautions were 
taken to get rid of the dust. All stone was of course wetted before use. 

The lime used was obtained from nodular kunkur excavated from 
^ quarries near Kuruvandth, at the foot of the 

ghaut on the Madura side. An analysis of 
random specimens is as follows :— 


— 

1 

Xo. 1. 1 

No. 2. 

No. 3. 

No. 4. 

Moisture, &c., P.C. 

2-050 

1-250 

1-700 

1-300 

Sand and silica, P.O. 

3-2-752 

22-550 

20-500 

25-100 

Ferric oxide, P.C. 

2-400 

2-400 

2-600 

2-000 

Alumina, P.C. ... ' 

1-200 

1-400 

0-200 

2-400 

Carbonic acid, P.C. 

23-950 

29-650 

29-250 

31-750 

Sulphuric acid, P.C. 

Traces. 

Traces. 

Traces. 

Traces. 

Lime, P.C. 

24-200 

40-096 

42-400 ' 

35-000 

Magnesia, P.C. 

11-460 

1-153 

1-586 

1-713 

Loss and unaccounted for P.C. 

1-790 

1-701 

1-764 

0-740 

Total ... 

100-000 

100-000 

100-200 

100-000 




















40 


HISTOEY OF THE 


[chap. 


In 1887, previous to the commencement of work, experiments on 
the strength and setting of this lime were conducted at Kuruvanuth, 
but the reeord of them has been lost. They were, however, satisfactory. 
The absence, at that time, of a testing laboratory at Madras prevented 
accurate and detailed tests being conducted in a scientific manner, but 
on the dam specimens of lime and mortar from every mortar mill, and 
of lime as issued from the storesheds, were every day preserved and 
crushed after setting for various periods. The manipulation was too 
rough to render the figures of historical value, the object being merely 
to make sure that the lime had not perished or deteriorated. The results 
were, however, remarkably uniform and satisfactory and no cases of 
decomposition or premature hydration occurred. The pure lime showed 
a slight tendency to crack if allowed to set in the sun without sprink¬ 
ling, but this was only to be expected. Another satisfactory test was 
the constant submergence and scouring action to which the concrete and 
rubble masonry were exposed during construction. From this trial the 
mortar emerged unharmed, except in the rarest cases where it was quite 
green, and even then the damage was wonderfully slight on all occasions 
when an eddy was not set up. The progress of the dam was always 
arranged so as to escape the formation of eddies in the event of a flood, 
but they could not invariably be avoided, and their violence may be 
surmised from the fact of hard rough stones of over half a cubic foot 
being caught up in them and worn smooth and round in a few hours. 
Where the masonry had had a few days to set and there was no 
hollow or protuberance for the current to catch, absolutely no damage 
was done. 

The lime was burnt either in intermittent kilns of clay, or in large 
continuous kilns of stone in clay with an outside casing of stone in mortar. 
The former were not so economical as the latter, and were only used on 
emergency. The fuel used was charcoal in equal volumes with the lime¬ 
stone. The lime was slaked on a prepared surface close to the kilns 
immediately it was drawn, and was then stored in thatched sheds, and 
used generally between one and three months after burning. Figures of 
the outturn of the kilns need not be given, since it varied very greatly 
with the quantity of rain and the direction and force of the wind. After 
slaking a large amount of clinker remained, some of which was reburnt 
and some used for floors, latrines, &c. The measurement of slaked hme 
was generally times that of limestone. 


n.] 


PERIYAR PKOJECT. 


41 


This was prepared in the usual manner of tiles about an inch thick 
and four inches square, slightly under-burnt 
in small clay kilns. The tiles or ‘ hats ’ were 
moulded^by hand of selected soil, free from vegetable mould, tempered 
by watering and treading, and were dried in the sun. The soil con¬ 
tained rather a large number of quartz crystals, being the residue of 
decomposed rock, but judged by the test of experience it made exceed- 
good surki. The quantity of alumina contained in the soil was 
by analysis about 25 per cent. 

A very good quality of sand was obtained from the river-bed. The 
river ran in a series of pools divided by rapids, 
and in the pools were deposited beds of sand of 
a limited thickness over-lying the rock. While the lake was still low it 
was an easy matter to dig up the sand by hand in shallow water or 
dredge it by small hand cranes mounted on barges, but as the lake deep¬ 
ened the lead became very great, and as it took a long time to fill a 
boat by hand the flotilla would have had to be enormously increased 
had the same methods been continued. Accordingly a Priestman’s 
Grab Dredger was purchased and used from a barge. This dredger 
was capable according to the makers’ price list of dredging 400 tons per 
day of ten hours, but under the unfavourable conditions that prevailed 
it did not turn out at the best more than 100 tons a day, or 150 tons in 
a day and a night. The depth of water was sometimes considerable, 
since it was advisable to exhaust the. beds near the dam before going 
higher up the river. The sand beds were also of varying thickness and 
a full bucket could not be depended on, while delays were of frequent 
occurrence on account of the grab catching trees and boulders and 
being unable to close. Owing to the poor calibre of the drivers avail¬ 
able the dredger was of course not worked to its best capacity and 
break-downs were of frequent occurrence, and in order to supplement 
the supply another dredger was contrived on the works by utilizing the 
gear of a large steam-derrick and fitting it to a short jib. The revolv¬ 
ing motion of the gear was very slow, and it was found easier to move 
the hopper barges than to swing the jib, which added somewhat to the 
expense, but otherwise this made a reliable dredger and was often of 
great assistance. Throughout the work the supply of sand only jusf 
kept pace with the demand, and had it not been for the cessation of 
building from the middle of April to the end of June more dredging 


42 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


plant must have been provided, but as affairs stood a stock was always 
laid in during these months that supplemented deficiencies during the 
working months. The lead eventually reached 9 miles as the lake 
deepened, and a powerful steam-tug was only just sufficient to tow 
the barges up and down fast enough. 

The mortar was composed of three parts by volume of sand, two of 
lime, and one of sarki. This combination was 
Mortar. found by experiment to be as good as any 

other and the most economical. The mortar was mixed in pan-mills, 
engine driven, or in country bullock-mills. The former had the better 
appearance and was the better to work, but as far as could be ascertained 
there was no appreciable difference in strength or setting. The pan or 
trench having been cleaned the surki in bats was first thrown in and 
partially broken up, a little water being then added and the mill revolved 
until the powder was fairly fine. Lime was then added by degrees and 
more water until a rather sloppy mortar was formed and thoroughly 
mixed and ground. Sand was then gradually poured in dry, a little 
water being occasionally added when the friction became too great for 
the engine, until the whole was thoroughly mixed and of the proper 
plasticity. Throughout the work very dry mortar was used, only just 
dry enough to be worked with a trowel, it being believed that an excess 
of water forces the mortar to the top in ramming and in evaporation leaves 
hollows. Experiments to ascertain the minimum necessary for complete 
hydration were of course made. A maistry supervised each mill and 
regulated the proportion, but to ensure uniformity the quantities of 
each material for every charge were stacked alongside the mill in iron 
basins before mixing was begun. Mortar when conveyed to the work 
was inspected for plasticity and homogeneity before use by the officer 
in charge. 

Concrete is not popular as a material to prevent the percolation of 
water, and it was at first intended to plaster the 

Concrete and rubble upstream face of the dam. This intention was 
masonry. ^ 

dependent on the river being below the work as 

it advanced and on the possibility of using wooden frames as an abut¬ 
ment for ramming. The abandonment of the low level escape culverts 
necessitated a reconsideration of this method, and a wall of rubble in 
mortar, uncoursed, was substituted. It would have been difficult under 
the circumstances, sometimes impossible, to plaster this wall, even if it 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


43 


n.] 

were necessary ; but the rubble masonry, well pointed, forms nearly as 
impermeable a skin as plaster. No attempt was made (indeed the 
expense would have been prohibitive), to ram the joints in the manner 
followed, for instance, at Vyrnwy, but they were well raked out while 
soft and afterwards carefully pointed with neat cement up to the 120 
level, and above that with specially ground surki mortar ; and this, if 
not interrupted for a short time while setting, was found to be an 
excellent and very fairly impervious face. The wall itself was rather 
more than a skin wall, since sudden rises of the river and the advan¬ 
tage of working without interruption obliged it to be sometimes both 
high and strong. The danger of unequal settlement of the rubble 
masonry and the concrete was of course considered, but this was held 
tg, be imperceptible in a structure built up so slowly as the Periydr 
Dam. To guard against it as far as possible the front w’all was furnished 
with large buttresses and protuberances, both vertical and horizontal, 
and particular care was taken with the joint between the concrete and 
the masonry. Settlement was thus reduced to a minimum and any 
stresses set up could easily be absorbed. 

Some careful experiments were carried out in the year 1887 by 
Mr. G. T. Walch, then Superintending Engineer, I Circle, -with the 
object of arriving at some definite measure of the permeabihty of ordinary 
concrete under a great head of water, but the results were not altogether 
conclusive. The materials employed were Godavari sandstone and surki 
mortar as used habitually in the delta, and time ranging from 110 to 
150 days was allowed for setting before trial. In the various experiments 
stone was broken to pass through either a 3-inch or a 2-inch ring, the 
mortar was composed of twm parts by volume of sand, 1 hme, | surki, 
and the proportions of stone to mortar were 3^ to 1, 3 to 1, 2f to 1, and 
2 to 1. The blocks were sometimes plastered, sometimes unplastered, 
and a pressure rising to 110 lb. on the square inch was applied through 
a hydraulic boiler-testing force pump, the flange of the pipe being con¬ 
nected to an iron plate with cotton packing, a leather washer being 
between the plate and the concrete block. The concrete was rammed in 
1-foot layers in boxes 2^' x 2|' x4^'. Pressure was applied on a 
vertical face or faces, in the direction of the plane of the layers. Mr. 
Walch’s remarks on the experiments wnre as follows: — 

“ The plastering was done with the same mortar used in the concrete, 
but this was not good enough^ and, having too 
Bemarkg. . much sand, dried (though it was kept wet for 


44 


filSTOEY OF THE 


[chap. 


many days) with numerous very fine cracks on its sm-face so that it was 
difficult, and in many cases impossible, to get an area of surface for apply¬ 
ing the water pressure without such cracks. This accounts for the varying 
results in experiments on plastered faces. 

“The results however show clearly, I consider, that concrete faced with 
good plaster will not leak under a head of 135 feet of water. What would 
be the case without such plastering the experiments do not conclusively 
show. 

“It is quite impossible with such coarse concrete to get a face to it, as 
it is rammed, smooth enough to take any washer that will make a water¬ 
tight joint, and therefore such a surface has to be obtained by chiselling 
and rubbing, which operations disturb and crack to some extent the mortar 
round the stones, and then the water entering at such cracks has only a 
small thickness of mortar to resist it in forcing its way back to the pressure 
face round the washer. It was so the leakage always broke out; in many 

cases it also broke out at some distance 
away and in one case it made its way 
right through the 2' 6" thickness of con¬ 
crete. Of course in a reservoir dam the 
leakage back through face would not 
take place, and I do not believe it would 
be serious through good concrete of a 
thickness necessary to give stability; but at the same time I do not 
believe that even such a mass would be absolutely free from leakage or 
‘ sweating,’ unless faced with good dense plaster. 

“As regards size of stone, and proportions of stone and mortar, the 
experiments give nothing conclusive. The blocks of smaller sized stone 
looked better on their faces than those made of the bigger stone, but it 
would certainly not in a large mass be necessary to make the whole hearting 
of small stone. Such stone should, however, be used towards the faces, 
especially the one to be plastered and to take the water pressure.” 

A similar experiment was made at the Periydr with concrete rammed 
in 6-inch layers exactly in the manner and with the materials employed 
on the works. The pipe was, however, embedded in the concrete, the 
outer surface of the pipe being previously well plastered; and the 
pressure was also applied at right angles to the plane of the layers 
instead of parallel to it. The result was that with 75 lb. on the square 
inch water began to sweat between the two layers nearest to the mouth 
of the pipe, and with 10 lb. more pressure a distinct stream appeared. 

Speaking generally it may be said, on the occasions during the 
progress of the work when concrete was directly opposed to a head of 







II.] 


PEEIYA.R PROJECT. 


45 


water without iuterrening plaster, that it was not found by any means 
impervious. A leak which succeeded in penetrating the thick skin of 
uncoursed rubble masonry found little difficulty in traversing the concrete 
behind. Such leaks had to be suppressed at the front. If treated in 
the concrete they broke out in another place, and the few that were 
allowed to continue were not interfered with, but were conducted to the 
downstream face and allowed to flow freely out. It is very difficult, 
though undoubtedly possible, to make a concrete that shall be imper¬ 
vious to a powerful head of water. The expense attending such an 
attempt on the Periydr Dam v/ould have been totally disproportionate 
to the benefit attained. 

As a matter of subsidiary interest it may be noticed that in Mr. 
Walch’s trials— 


Gauge. 

Cubic feet. 

Cubic feeh 


Cubic feet 


Stone. 

Mortar. 


finished bid 

3" 

27-72 

9-24 r 

ammed down to 25-00 


27*72 

8-30 

J J 

25-00 


27-72 

11-08 

J) 

25-CO 


27-72 

10-07 

? ? 

25-00 

oU/ 

^2 

27-72 

9-24 

j. 

25-00 


30-03 

9-24 

j, 

23-56 


23-10 

9-24 

jj 

21-65 


25-41 

9'24 

?> 

22-37 


The deduction is that the interstices in stone brokeh to these gauges 
and unpacked constitute more than one-third of the total bulk. Of course 
the greater part of the stone was much smaller than the gauge through 
which it is passed. At the Periydr many experiments to ascertain the 
volume of interstices were made, and it was found that with stone broken 
to a 2J" gauge, taken at random from a heap, and packed by hand in 
a box, the interstices averaged over 40 per cent. On the works stone 
was dumped by coohes into boxes 5' x 5' x and mortar into boxes 
2' X 2' X 1'. These when mixed, laid in situ, and rammed, diminished 
by very nearly one-fifth of the volume of the mixture unrammed. 

A certain number of blocks of concrete, 1' cube, were made on tho 
works and subjected to pressure after setting from one to six months, 
Experiments with such young blocks are never satisfactory, as they are 
unable to resist the rubbing and chiselling necessary to enable them to 
take the pressure plate evenly. Unsupported cubes of small size are 


46 


HISTOKY OF THE 


[chap. 


also prone to crack at the corners before the material is really crushed. 
The blocks in this case were made principally to make sure of the 
adhesion of the mortar to the stone, to inspect the condition of the 
interior after setting, and to arrive at the weight of the eoncrete. They 
gave, however, very satisfactory comj)ression results, the block generally 
beginning to disintegrate with a pressure of from 40 to 50 tons on the 
square foot. It will be useful some years hence to cut blocks from the 
interior of the dam and subject them to comprehensive tests. The 
average weight of concrete used on the dam was very nearly 150 lb. 
to the cubic foot. 


Timber and fuel. 


The country in the vicinity of the dam was in great part clothed 
with dense forest and at first sight the supply of 
timber appeared inexhaustible. This, however, 
was by no means the case. A considerable portion, and that in the most 
convenient situation along the banks of the river, had been felled and the 
land used for cultivation by the hill people, and afterwards abandoned. 
Such land is soon re-covered with jungle, but the after-growth is mostly 
eeta, and contains no useful trees. In the rest the under-growth was 
very dense and checked the growth of timber trees, which were besides 
too close together, so that really useful timber was comparatively scarce. 
The demand was large, since there were the lime-kilns to be supphed 
with charcoal, three steamers, a steam tunnelling-plant, and numerous 
boilers and portable engines to be provided with firewood. Consequently 
the price for stacking and carriage, which w^as at first small, increased 
rapidly and eventually became as great as in places where the wood 
itself has also to be bought. At the Periyar timber bond fide required 
for the works was included in the-lease of the land. Throughout the 
w^ork unseasoned timber was unavoidably employed and was the cause 
of constant inconvenience. The principal trees used were teak, Tectona 
grandis for all purposes, blackwood, Dalbergia latifolia where a very 
hard wood was required, Terminalia 'paniculata ^ the common tree of those 
parts, used for everything and bad for all, Terminalia chehula (GaU-nut) 
for firewood, Terminalia tomentosa^ for timber, Anogeissus latifolia for 
firewood, Artocarpus hirmta (Angeli), for many purposes but chiefly 
boat-building. It is lighter than teak and makes a very good boat for 
quasi-temporary purposes. Dgsoxylim malabanieum (white cedar) for 
planks, Cedrella toona^ (red cedar) for planks, Sterculia foetida (poon) 
for long spars, derricks, &c., Lagerstroemia microearpa (venteak) for 
shingles and firewood, Phyllanthus emblica (hill gooseberry), an excellent 


II.] 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


47 


firewood, but small, Anthistiria cyrnharia^ the common grass of these 
hills, for thatching, Ochlandra rhedii (eeta) for cooly lines. 

Main Workshed. 

The river, after passing round the right flank of the dam or through 
the culverts that were built at the higher levels, flowed back into the bed 
over a weir with its crest at + 24 built originally of piers and shutters, 
which were constantly destroyed, and therefore eventually replaced by a 
solid wall. At the downstream or western end of this weir the main 
workshed was built, running east and west. The weir was far too short 
and in times of flood the workshed ran considerable risk and was occasion¬ 
ally damaged. At the eastern end of the shed was the motive power, 
a vertical turbine of 180 H.P. on a 25-feet head. The shed was in two 
stories, the lower floor being at -f 27, and the upper at + 43. It was 
built of uncoursed rubble in mortar on rock or heavy boulder foundation, 
but the vibration was so great that all the machines in the upper story 
were eventually mounted on vertical timbers based on the lower floor, 
strongly braced, and not touching the walls. On the upper floor was, 
flrst, the main shafting, driven direct from the turbine by a vertical 
shaft and bevel wheels. Opposite the shafting were, at each end, Bax¬ 
ter’s stone-breakers, with 14" x 7|" aperture, six in all, driven direct 
by belts, and between the two batteries of stone-breakers two disinte¬ 
grators for hme and two for surki, driven by belts from countershafting 
on the lower floor. In front of each battery of stone-breakers was a 
conveyor for the broken stone, at first of the spiral type, after constant 
breakages replaced by belt conveyors. These conveyors deposited into 
measuring drums just below the upper floor. The lime and surki 
disintegrators fed into measuring drums below the upper floor and tlience 
into spiral conveyors. Sand was fed direct into measuring drums from 
shoots on the upper floor. The stone-breakers were fed from a platform 
below the roof and extending outside the shed on the northern side, the 
stone being deposited on the platform by trucks from the quarries. The 
lime and surki were fed into the disintegrators through holes in the roof. 
The lime, surki and sand conveyors supplied two mortar mixers mounted 
rather high on the ground floor, and these in turn deposited mortar into 
concrete mixers in a pit in the floor into which stone was fed direct from 
its measuring drums at the same time. A pump driven from the main 
shafting forced water through a line of pipes with taps in suitable 
positions. From the concrete mixer at the western end the concrete was 


48 


HISTOEY OF THE 


[chap. 


carried by a conveyor to buckets outside the shed ranged on a rail 
situated on a platform on the bank of the river. The eastern mixer 
deposited concrete direct into buckets, which were then raised by a hoist 
to the upper storey. For carriage to the work an overhead wire ropeway 
was used, capable of carrying 300 tons per 10 hours day at a speed of 
4 miles an hour. The wire was of the endless travelling description, on 
which the buckets were hung, suitable passes and tipping arrangements 
being made at the requisite spots, and the empty buckets coming back on 
the return wire. This ropeway was also driven by belting from the mam 
shafting. A fan, lathe, circular saw, vertical driller, and general joiner 
completed the equipment. The pump was connected to pipes leading to 
a reservoir at + 200 on the right bank, which supplied the officers’ 
quarters with water by gravitation. 

The erection of this workshed was exposed to many vicissitudes, 
owing at first to the incapacity of the mechanical engineers employed. 
The building itself was ready for use by October 1890, but the first 
mechanical engineer, a good fitter but a man with no control over himself 
or others, had by that time proved his incapacity and was dismissed. 
His temporary substitute, an ex-engineer of a small steamer, shortly 
afterwards died of drinking kerosine oil,, the only substitute he could 
procure for spirits. An Assistant Engineer of the permanent staff was 
then put in charge but was invalided before much could be done, and it 
was with great difficulty in the intervals of other work that the turbine 
was at last fitted up, with unseasoned timber under the bed-plates whch 
afterwards gave great trouble by warping. An Assistant Engineer from 
the Public Works Shops in Madras was then sent up, and fitted and 
aligned the main shafting, but he too was shortly invalided. A perma¬ 
nent incumbent of ability and energy was then at last secured, and from 
that time progress was rapid and difficulties were speedily overcome. 
These difficulties, however, were abundant and after a full and patient 
trial a re-organisation was decided on. The following serious defects were 
discovered. The men feeding unslaked lime and surki from the roof 
suffered from the dust. They were obliged to work with mouths and 
nostrils covered and were subject to severe internal pains, so that at last 
they came to work but three times a week and high pay was needed to 
secure the necessary hands. Inside the shed it was found that the 
disintegrators were far from dust-proof, in spite of special joints and 
other devices, and the nnslaked lime and surki combined with dust from 


II.J 


PEEIYAE PEOJECT, 


49 


the stone-breakers rendered the atmosphere, even with the fan, almost 
unbearable for any length of time. The apertures of the stone-breakers 
were too small, stone had to be specially broken to fit them, jams and 
stoppages were frequent, and the outturn was far below requirements. 
The spiral conveyors for broken stone have already been alluded to. 
These were utterly unfit for the purpose. The spiral conveyors worked 
weU with lime and surki, but in the moist atmosphere of the Periydr the 
lime set hard along the inside of the conveyor trough and had to be 
removed nightly with chisels, or a breakage of the spiral was the result. 
The measuring drums driven off the main shafting were found unsuit¬ 
able, since they tipped at the same speed whether they were full or empty, 
and drums worked by hand were too expensive and depended on the 
regularity of the man in charge, a most uncertain factor—consequently 
the proportions of the various materials that passed into the mortar and 
concrete mixers were most unequal, and the concrete was often so visibly 
bad as to necessitate instant rejection, while no absolute dependence 
could at any time be placed on it. Finally, the uniform outturn was 
entirely based on the regular running of aU the machines, and the 
stoppage of any one necessitated the stoppage of the whole of that side, 
w hil e anything like a breakdown required a complete re-arrangement of 
the drums. These drawbacks could in time have been overcome, but 
the space available was far too confined to afford proper room for feeding 
bins above and hopper reservoirs below the macliines, and meanwhile 
the dam was being seriously delayed at a period when time was of the 
greatest consequence. After due consideration the concrete and mortar 
mixers and disintegrators were entirely cut out, and mortar was mixed 
in Tmills worked by engines or bullocks in convenient places and conveyed 
separately to the work. The stone-breakers were retained and the stone 
conveyed direct to the ropeway and thence to the dam. The concrete 
was mixed in situ by hand. 

Until the workshed was ready for use the stone-breakers were driven 
by steam on the right bank escape, but even then, and much more later 
on as the work progressed more rapidly, it was seen that the outturn 
was insufficient. When the stone-breakers were all removed to the 
workshed two others, with aperture 20" x 12", were procured and 
driven by portable engines in the open air on the escapes. These had 
plenty of room and were fed more easily and could be run at night, 
while the sixe of the aperture rendered j amming far less frequent; so that 

G 


50 


HISTOEY OF THE 


[chap. 


the outturn of these two was in reality greater than that of the other 
six, and they were in consequence considerably cheaper. Their prox¬ 
imity to the quarry and the wide area of storage room around them 
enabled the contractor to supply stone direct from the blasting without 
previous staeking. This was in itself a great economy. Being situated 
on the escape at a level of -f 144 they commanded practically the whole 
of the dam, and broken stone from them was run to shoots and shot 
straight down to the work-spots. This was an enormous advantage. 
The main workshed being at a low level and the quarries high, the 
unbroken stone had to be run down an incline on which the full trucks 
pulled up the empty ones. While the dam was lo^v this was no great 
drawback, but as the work rose the broken stone had to be delivered 
up-hill. In case of a stoppage on the ropeway, which often occurred 
from broken strands or a resphce, the delay was very aggravating. In 
such cases coolies carried the stone up in sacks, but the expense and 
confusion were excessive. 

Canal. 

For conveyance of materials between the top of the ghaut and the 
main dam there were several possible arrangements. The first, and that 
proposed in submitting the estimates, was a metalled road, on which it 
was intended to run traction engines. The second was a similar road, 
but shorter and with heavier gradients, without traction engines, 
materials being carried by ordinary carts. The third was a narrow gauge 
railway. The fourth was an overhead wire-ropeway. I'he fifth was 
the canalisation of the Mulya Panjdn, the small river having its head 
near Tekadi and running into the Periydr about a mile above the dam. 

The first and third methods would have been of very similar con¬ 
struction. They would have needed careful alignment, easy curves and 
gradients, solid and fairly permanent bridges and culverts, and a good 
deal of viaduct work and blasting, though in all these particulars the 
traction engines would have had a certain advantage. Both would have 
required careful and expensive maintenance, a very heavy item in the 
climate of these hills, and both would have been entirely dislocated in 
case of serious damage to any part. The first cost, both of way and 
rolling stock, would have been high, and the amount of firewood used 
would have caused a marked rise of price in that article and have neces¬ 
sitated well-organised arrangements for a steady supply of dry wood. 


.11.] 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


5i 

The traction engines would have had an advantage in a consideration 
which was not felt till some time after the works were commenced, 
namely, the indispensahility of a road for carts whatever other method 
of conveyance of materials was employed. It might he held that a road 
would he unnecessary with a railway in operation, but this is very 
doubtful. Any breakdown of the railway lasting more than a few hours 
would have caused intolerable inconvenience in the absence of a road; 
but under any circumstances a road would have been essential during 
the construction of the railway, which judging from experience in other 
matters would have been hy .no means an insignificant period. A road 
having been once made the cost of up-keep only would he saved by 
abandoning it as soon as the railway was finished. 

The use of a metalled road and common carts would have been easy 
and certain, hut slow and expensive. The advantage of this'method 
would have been its simplicity and elasticity and the absence of uncer¬ 
tainty concerning costs and rates. As a matter of fact a great deal of 
the limestone used and all the grain, supplies, bazaar requisites, and 
private property and merchandise were actually carried to the works on 
carts by the road, but the cost was very great, and even if the works did 
not pay directly, they paid in the long run. The cost would have been 
somewhat less had the road been better, but a large outlay either on first 
cost or maintenance was unadvisable, in view of the small normal traffic 
and of the fact that parts were certain to be submerged as the water rose 
in the lake. If the originally proposed method of passing the water of 
the river during the construction of the dam had been adhered to, and 
if the level of the lake had been thereby maintained uniformly low 
throughout, it might have been worth while to make and maintain a 
broad first-class road. This consideration, however, applies both to the 
railway and the traction engines as well as to the road alone. AU 
must have been built at a high level, where the contours were much 
longer than near the bottom of the valley. The distance would have 
been great and the bridges and viaducts very heavy. A reasonably 
easy trace for a railway would have worked out to a distance of some 
19 miles. A road for traction-engines would not have been more than 
about 12 miles, but there would still have been heavy rook excavation 
and bridging. A first-class road for carts would have been httle less. 

The fourth method, an overhead wire ropeway, was not considered in 
detail tiU the canal was nearly finished, and it was found not to be worth 
while. A ropeway up the ghaut had already been determined on and 


52 


filSTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


■was constructed. The expense and difficulty of construction were very- 
great, and though this ropeway did excellent work when it was at length 
got into order, the experience gained did not favour the notion of another 
and considerably longer installation, chiefly on the grounds of delay and 
difficulty. It must be remembered, however, that the country between 
Tekadi and the Periydr was much easier than the ghaut, timber and 
labour were handier, and the work would have been done much faster 
and cheaper. This ropeway might have been partly or entirely driven 
by a turbine at Periydr and the drain of firewood would not have been 
nearly as large as for a railway or traction-engines. Heavy goods could 
not have been carried on it and a fairly good road as an auxiliary could 
not have been dispensed with. Looking at the matter, however, in the 
light of actual experience, it is not improbable that this would have been 
on the whole the best way of surmounting the difficulty. It would have 
been far less liable to damage than a railway or canal, and damage 
could be much more easily repaired. The alignment would have been 
shorter and easier than a railway or first-class road, and there would be a 
great saving in the cost of permanent way, while locomotives and rolling 
stock would have probably cost more or not less than wire rope and 
stationary engines, both in first cost and upkeep. It would have been 
almost independent of weather and would have needed less skilled 
labour. 

From every point of view a canal appeared on primd facie grounds 
the most suitable of all the methods proposed. A small river, needing 
little alignment, ran already in the required direction and the total 
length need not be more than 8 miles. Rock was presumed to be not 
far from the surface, so that the construction of cheap locks or dams 
would not be difficult. The materials required were merely stone, 
mortar and timber, which are cheaper than iron goods and machines 
and (what was of more importance) could be quickly and easily obtained. 
Less skilled labour would be needed both for construction and mainte¬ 
nance, and actual carriage would be cheap and of a nature suitable to the 
genius of the country, being both simple and slow. No re-adjustment of 
the arrangements would be necessary, since each reach would become 
merged in the lake as the water rose and the distance would become less 
instead of greater. Even on the score of first cost, generally a prominent 
factor in canals, the advantage seemed here to be with water carriage, 
since little except light masonry works was necessary to form a channel 
quite good enough for temporary purposes. 


LOCK ON MULIAPANAN CANAL 













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II.] 


peeiyXr peoject. 


53 


On all hands, therefore, a eanal seemed preferable, and its constmc- 
tion was decided on. The details, difficulties and contretemps will be 
described as they occurred, but it may be stated here that they were a 
great deal more frequent and more serious than was anticipated, so much 
so that at times it seemed as if any other method would have been pre¬ 
ferable. It is however doubtful if they would not have been at least as 
oppressive with a railway or a first-class road with traction-engines, and 
had either of these courses been adopted, it is at least open to speculation 
whether a canal would not have at times been more ardently wished for 
than was ever a railway. 

Construction of Canal. 

The first operation was the alignment, which was not a matter of 
serious difficulty, though complicated by the dense jungle on the banks 
of the stream, which retarded the surveys and interfered greatly with a 
thorough inspection of the ground. A suitable line was laid out by 
February 1888, the distance to the mouth of the river being 8 miles and 
to the dam 9 miles, with eleven locks with an average drop of 8J feet. 
A very simple design was adopted and the chambers were small, the most 
expensive items in the estimate being the gates, which were necessarily 
substantial owing to the head of water to be retained. The design was 
similar to that of a second-class lock-gate in the Kistna, with valves in 
the gate worked by a rack and pinion. The estimate for each lock was 
Es. 4,000 or just double the allowance in the sanctioned estimates. The 
lift and quoin walls were of concrete, the chamber of earth sloped to 1 in 
4 and revetted. Weirs of rubble in mortar 30 feet long were allowed, to 
pass 500 cubic feet per second, which was taken to be the maximum 
discharge of the stream, as far as Nataman’s valley, below which an 
increased length was estimated for. 

The first two locks were begim at once and by April 1888 were 
partially finished, and doubts already began to arise whether it was 
advisable to build the others. The expense was much greater than was 
anticipated, and worse still the time occupied in construction seemed to 
portend a quite intolerable delay. These considerations grew stronger 
as time proceeded, and by August it became obvious that another plan 
was necessary. Accordingly it was determined to block up No. 2 Lock 
and convert it into a dam, to substitute three dams for the next eight 
locks and for the last piece a short line of tramway as far as the point to 


54 


HISTOKY OF THE 


[chap. 


which the Periyar backed up oa account of the temporary dam in front 
of the main dam. This entailed the expense and delay of tranship¬ 
ping arrangements, but there was no other resource. The foundations 
at the proposed sites for locks were found to be far less favourable 
than was expected, the river bed being of permeable shingle or boulders 
instead of solid rock; nor did the sites admit of much alteration. The 
dams were fewer and admitted of more elasticity in the choice of site. 
The cost of the locks was, as already stated, very high, and three dams 
were certain to be cheaper than eight locks. But the chief difficulty 
was on the score of labour and supervision. Each lock entailed a 
separate little camp in the jungle and separate superintendenee. Both 
coolies and skilled labourers were most reluctant to be employed on these 
works, what with bad lodging, bad water, difficulties in food-supply, and 
terrors of wild beasts—the latter not by any means altogether imagin¬ 
ary, sinee elephants had to be constantly driven off with tom toms and 
firebrands and the night was full of significant sounds. At a later 
period in the works one man near a wood-cutters’ camp was killed by a 
tiger, and another man mauled in the doorway of his hut in the camp 
itself. The dams of course entailed the same troubles, but in a minor 
degree, and were rmdoubtedly of two evils the less. Their construction 
was, therefore, briskly pushed on, and the canal as finally decided on 
became of the form shown in the longitudinal section. Its construction 
is summarised in the following resume of the monthly progress reports. 

In September 1888 the report of progress stated that elephants had 
been unusually troublesome, breaking into a shed at No. 2 Dam, and 
taking out and destroying two barrels of Portland cement (a material 
for which they had a special weakness), pulling up furlong stones set in 
concrete along the road, and so on. By the end of February 1889 
the dams were completed with the exception of a few days’ work at 
No. 1 and No. 3. During the fever months nothing was done, and in 
.July No. 3 Dam was topped by floods in the Muliya Panjdn and Nos. 1 
and 2 nearly so, in spite of vents left in them for the passage of water, 
but no damage was done. During the next season earthwork was 
proceeded with, the waterway cleared of standing and fallen trees, tow- 
paths formed and arrangements made for navigation. In July 1890 
the weir of No. 2 Lock was carried away by trees dashing against it, 
but the dams were in good order and the transhipping arrangements 
were commenced, but the unhealthiness of the camps and the lack of 


MULIAPANJAN CANAL, 



■.<1 






• f 




t". 
































n.] 


periyXr project. 


65 


establishment rendered progress slow, the whole of the labour sometimes 
deserting a ^iece of work. The unloading arrangements were com¬ 
pleted in September, but the re-building of No, 2 Lock weir gave much 
trouble, and it was not completed till January 1891, by which time a 
heavy leak had appeared round the flank of No. 2 Dam, which com¬ 
pelled the lowering of the water for inspection and repairs. The canal 
was, however, now in partial use and it had become evident that for the 
third reach a steamer for towing was required. This was accordingly 
purchased from the Tansa Water Works. By the end of March of this 
year the whole canal was reported ready for use. It was, however, con¬ 
sidered unwise to attempt to make the expensive piece of tramway below 
the last dam, and materials were accordingly unloaded at a wharf 
between No. 2 and No. 3 Dams and were thence conveyed to tlie main 
dam, a distance of about 2 miles by cart. The trouble and expense 
were, of course, great, but it was considered that by the time the 
tramway and other arrangements were finished progress on the main 
dam would have backed the water up to the foot of No. 3 Dam. 

In October No. 3 Dam breached, probably from .overslaked lime 
having been used in its construction. The bank between No. 2 Lock 
and its weir also breached, owing to heavy rain and a fiood in the Muliya 
Panjdn. The latter damage was quickly repaired and limestone was 
carted from No. 2 Dam, whi(^ was close to the road. By the end 
of January 1892 No. 3 Dam was rebuilt, but as the first and shallowest 
reach ran dry during the succeeding month water was not held up 
against it. Limestone was carted all the way from Tekadi and advan¬ 
tage was taken of the canal being unwatered to carry out certain 
improvements in transhipment. In July of this year 23| inches of rain 
fell including 6’80 inches on the 23rd. The bund of the turbine 
reservoir breached and aggravated the fiood in the Muliya Panjdn, and 
No. 3 Dam was undermined and overturned, most of the transhipping 
arrangements washed away, and several barges sunk. A bund of earth 
and sand bags was built below the wharf to replace No. 3 Dam and 
other repairs were completed by October 15, but the bund collapsed 
within a couple of days, and from that time limestone continued to be 
carted from No. 2 Dam. Water, however, failed by the end of Nov¬ 
ember, and the canal did not fill again till the following July. From 
this time reports alternated between “Canal in good order and traffic 
regular” to “No water in canal.” From July to January in each 


56 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


year it generally worked satisfactorily, and as the various dams were 
gradually submerged by the backing up of the water in the Periydr 
the supply in the canal had less call upon it. 

By July 1895 the water in the Periydr was backed up a height 
sufficient to allow uninterrupted water carriage from Tekadi to the 
main dam, and the canal may be said to have then ceased to exist. Its 
history has been given at some length, with a view to explaining 
the trouble and expense of which it was itself the subject and which 
it caused indirectly in the dislocation of traffic when it was supremely 
important to maintain an uninterrupted supply of material. It will 
have been seen that the whole of the working seasons of 1889, 1890, and 
1891 were occupied in constructing this canal and during all this time 
limestone and such other materials as came from the plains were delivered 
by road. The locks and dams were finished by March 1889, and it 
was the earthwork, towpaths, clearance of obstructive jungle, and tran¬ 
shipping arrangements that occupied the rest of the time. The jungle¬ 
clearing was a most tedious operation, since a track for boats had to be 
marked out and the trees and undergrowth felled and removed in water. 
The rise of the water level then rotted other trees which fell in great 
numbers across the fairway and had to be dislodged piecemeal. All 
these things could have been done easily in a good climate with 
plenty of labour and appliances, but the drawbacks of situation already 
alluded to rendered it a matter demanding the most unremitting 
exertion. 

It may further be pointed out that the canal was never used below 
the wharf between Dams Nos. 2 and 3, until No. 3 Dam was finally sub¬ 
merged ; and a rehandling and cartage of 2 miles was the result. An 
estimate of rates based on the presumption of cheap water carriage 
throughout the duration of the work was therefore certain to be much at 
fault, even had the rest of the canal been in working order the whole 
time. Of such length of the canal as was habitually used it may be 
said that it answered its purpose admirably and formed a cheap, easy, 
and efficient means of transport. Even this was however dependent on 
two factors, namely, the supply of water to the ropeway up the ghaut 
and the supply in the canal itself. When the former stopped it was 
found that it did not pay to cart hmestone up the ghaut, ship it at 
Tekadi, and unload it into carts again at the wharf. When the wire 
ropeway was not working the canal was, therefore, practically inoperative. 


MULIAPANJAN CANAL. 






















1 / 







II.] 


PEEIYAE PROJECT. 


57 


At favourable times stocks of limestone were accordingly pushed forward, 
but at certain seasons of the year the road was always heavily taxed. 
This is an illustration of one of the defects of water-power or water- 
carriage when the supply is not unlimited. Fuel can always be obtained 
in some way or other and steam-power therefore can be readily expanded. 
Water-power does not possess a corresponding elasticity, though as 
far as it goes and under favourable conditions it is undoubtedly very 
cheap. 

A word may perhaps be devoted to the transhipping arrangements. 
The limestone, which was almost jthe only article carried, was loaded in 
opening boxes which were first lifted by stationary cranes mounted on the 
dams, and then placed on frames, mounted on wheels, which were run on 
rails laid on piers behind the dam to shoots. The boxes being opened 
the stone ran down the shoots into similar boxes arranged in a boat 
waiting below. The shoots were swung on pivots to allow for variations 
in the depth of water. The boats were flat bottomed, of wood, generally 
40 feet long by 10 feet wide, and 3 feet deep, carrying a free-board of 
about 8 inches when fuUy loaded. They were originally square-ended, 
but were afterwards aU fitted with bows—a great improvement. The 
conditions of haulage in the various reaches were so various, that it is 
useless to give particulars of loads carried or distances covered. 

The actual cost of the canal wasRs. 1,20,000 excluding maintenance. 

Wire Ropeway Transport. 

The reasons for determining on this method of transporting material 
from the foot of the ghaut to the top are fully set forth in pages 25-27. 

The report there quoted sets forth the principles of the original scheme 
for the ropeway, the details of which were but slightly deviated from and 
then chiefly in details. 

The main features in which the ropeway erected differed from that 
originally planned were— 

(a) The ropeway was driven by a separate turbine and not by the 
turbine driving the tunnel air compressors. The water- 
supply which fed the tunnel turbine, after passing through 
that turbine, was led by a contour channel half a mile in 
length to the driving station of the ropeway. The turbine 

H 


58 


HISTORY OF THE [cHAP. 

used was a 60-H.P., Grirard turbine and the fall available 
and used was 179 feet. 

(b) The length of the ropeway was increased from 12,000 to 
16,010 feet. 

(c) The material carried was limestone and a small quantity of 
surki only, all other materials and stores being transported 
in country carts. 

The form of post recommended by the English contractors for the 
machinery was a four-legged trestle post of squared scantlings. A trial 
was given and results showed that were this form adhered to the ropeway 
would take years to erect. It was accordingly decided to restrict the 
employment of this form of post to those posts which were upwards of 
90 feet in height and to make the others out of single trees or two trees 
spliced. As the line passed through thick jungle trees of the size required 
were not hard to find. Elephants were employed to drag them to site 
and a gang of lascars from the West Coast was employed to erect them. 

The great objections to the single tree posts were (1) their liability 
to twist, (2) their destructibility by white ants, (3) susceptibility to wet 
and dry rot. To obviate these objections the following steps were taken in 
each case:—(1) Gruys were used but were often stolen by passing coolies 
and cart-men. (2) Sulphate of copper in solution was put into holes so 
arranged that the whole area of the post was covered. This met with 
such a moderate amount of success that it was discontinued on account of 
the expense. (3) The closest attention was given to the posts to prevent 
wet or dry rot and the usual remedies employed, with but partial success, 
as the trees were cut down and used at once without being in any way 
seasoned. 

Results showed that the four-legged trestle post was the better for 
permanent use, but that considering the length of time required for 
erection and the expense and the difficulty of obtaining seasoned scant¬ 
lings, the single post system was the best for temporary use in that 
particular locality and under the particular circumstances prevailing at 
the time of erection. 

When posts were pulled down owing to dry or wet rot or white ants, 
they were replaced if very short by three-legged posts of 4" W. I. pipes, 
and if over 24'-30' by a four-legged trestle post of wooden scantlings. 

The ropeway was divided into four sections— 


tl.] 


PERIYAK PEOJECT. 


69 


A—B 
B—C 
C-D 

D—E 


5 , 660 ' 

2 , 700 ' 

2 , 050 ' 

6 , 300 ' 

16,600 


A being the terminal station at the upper end, 
and E at the lower end, C being the driving 
station and an angle, and B and D being two other 
angles. 


The span between the posts never exceeded 300 feet. In stretching 
the rope, which was done iTj winches placed on the top of convenient 
hiUs, the sag allowed for each span was not less than . 


The first rope used was Bullivant’s steel wirerope, Bullivant’s lay, 
the circumference being 2 f inches. The second rope was the same 
size but Lang’s lay. The rope travelled and the buckets were attached 
by Carrington’s runners and hangers. The weight of the bucket, &c., 
was 74^ lb. The capacity of the bucket was 1-| cubic feet of limestone 
and 1 cubic foot of surki bricks. 


The speed at which it ran varied from 2|-3 miles per hour. 

The first rope worked for 9—10 months and was badly worn after 
run n ing only three months. No doubt this was in great] measure due 
to the rope having lain in a river bed covered with sand on its way up. 
The second rope was Lang’s lay and worked until the ropeway stopped 
without signs of appreciable wear. 

The lift from station E to 0 was 1,100 feet. 

C-B about 350 feet. 


B to A a drop of about 200 feet. 

Making the total difference in height between E and A about 1,250 
feet. 

The quantity of material carried per working day averaged 40 tons. 
The working day may be said to have been about 7 hours actual running 
on the average, so the quantity carried per hour exceeded 5 tons. The 
cost was Es, 3-4-0 per 5 tons for line lascars, loading and unloading, 
in addition to which a repairing establishment of 1 carpenter, 1 smith, 
1 bellows boy, 4 coolies, 2 boys and 1 driver, was maintained at a cost 
per working day of Es. 6-6-0. The cost of small stores was on the 
average Es. 2-10-0 per diem, bringing up the daily cost to Es. 9 or 
5 tons per Es. 1-2-0, so that the actual cost per 5 tons may be taken to 
have been not less than Es. 4-6-0. 

The best mixture for keeping the rope in order was found to be tar, 
mica, grease, and oil. 



.60 


HISTOEY OF THE 


[chap. 


Main Dam. 

A description may now be attempted of the work to which all that 
has been thus far narrated was subsidiary, the construction of the main 

dam. 

After the preliminary proceedings which have been touched on at the 
beginning of the present chapter, work on "the foundation was resumed 
at the end of June 1888, but little could be done during July and 
August except earthwork on account of the weather, l^e following 
extracts from the Chief Engineer’s Report on the foundations describe 
the conditions and summarise the progress :— 

‘‘ The bed of the river at the site of the dam is of rock, sloping very 
gently for a short distance on each flank and then dropping suddenly, in 
some places vertically, towards the deep channel in the centre of the bed. 
This deep channel is from 50 to 80 feet wide and from 12 to 20 feet below 
the surface of the water when at its lowest, this surface being 2 feet 
above the datum line of the Periyar surveys. The maximum flood level is 
about 20 feet above this datum, but the highest flood recorded since the 
works were begun is 15 feet above it. The existence of this chasm in the 
river-bed has added greatly to the difficulty and expense of getting in the 
foundations ; it gradually narrows both above and below the site of the dam, 
and disappears entirely a short distance in each direction, but the nature of 
the banks prevents any great deviation from the actual site. When the 
original designs were prepared the existence of this chasm was not known, 
and the bed was supposed to be a tolerably smooth rock with its greatest 
depth not more than 6 feet below the minimum water level, and the scheme 
of construction described in the original report was based on this supposi¬ 
tion. It was intended to construct a temporary dam distinct from the main 
dam, a short distance above Jt, to a height of 30 feet above datum, and a 
similar dam 10 feet high below the main dam, the space between these two 
dams being pumped out to enable the foundations of the main dam to be 
put in. The object of making the upper dam 30 feet high was to obtain, as 
soon as possible, sufficient head of water for working the machinery for the 
manufacture of the concrete to be used in the construction of the main dam. 
When the banks were cleared of jungle and the real conditions ascertained, 
it was evident that the upper temporary dam could not be constructed in the 
position or by the process originally intended.” 

The jungle was of the thickest and most impenetrable nature, the 
undergrowth being composed chiefly of eeta {Ochlandra rhedii) and 
rattan creeper, through which lanes had to be cut with axe and chopper 
in order to take the cross sections of the valley. It was, therefore, very 





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Survey of India Offices, Calcutta. 1899. 


FOUNDATION BNOLOSURE. 













.II.] PEEIYAK PBOJECT. 61 

« 

difficult to ascertain at a moment’s notice the exact conditions of the 
river-bed at this point. The site, it may be remembered, was suggested 
last of all^ and was selected for other considerations than the exact level 
of the river-bed. Later on the jungle on the banks was turned to account 
for hut-building and firewood, so that before the work had proceeded 
very far the banks for some distance above and below the dam became 
perfectly bare. 

“ It was then determined to build this (upper temporary) dam about 200 
feet higher up the river, where the central chasm was much narrower, and 
to lead the ordinary river discharge round the main dam by a channel cut 
in the earth of the right bank. 

“ The flank portions which were in no great depth of water were put in 
without any serious difficulty, though with frequent interruptions from floods, 
the protective works being carried away again and again. In order to 
obtain a foundation for the central portion it was determined to All the 
central chasm with dry stone up to water level, and to build upon the base 
thus formed. By the end of February 1889 the flank portions had been 
built up to-1-13 above datum, vents being left for the passage of water until 
the completion of the dam when it was intended to close them with wooden 
shutters. The central portion on the dry stone base was up to 10 feet above 
datum, and the base showed no signs of settlement. It was intended to 
leave the flanks at -f 13 until the central portion was up to -f- 20 and after¬ 
wards always to keep the central portion weU above the flanks, so that 
floods might go over the latter and the rubble base not be disturbed by 
falling water. 

“At the period mentioned freshes of any magnitude are exceedingly 
rare, and there was every reason to expect that the central portion would be 
carried up to the height required without interruption. Unfortunately this 
expectation was not realised; on the night of the 1st March there was 
heavy rain over the greater part of the river valley and early the following 
morning the river rose suddenly, the discharge rising from about 300 cubic 
feet per second to 4,000 in less than an hour. Of course the greater part 
of this discharge passed over the central portion, the upper part of which 
was quite fresh, and the green masonry was entirely destroyed. As far as 
could be seen from very careful observation the rubble base did not yield 
at all till after the masonry gave way, but of course when the latter was 
removed and the whole discharge passed over the former, a good deal of 
the stone was removed by scour. 

“ It was too late in the season to think of restoring the damaged portion 
on its old lines and it became necessary to consider whether a different 


62 


HISTOEY OF THE 


[chap. 


arrangement could be adopted. The flood wbiob caused the injury described 
above was not of long duration and by the 5th March the river had returned 
to its normal condition. It was then necessary to decide and to decide 
promptly what change of plan was practicable. To re-build on the former 
lines meant a whole season’s delay ; only four weeks more remained during 
which work was practicable, and it was physically impossible to complete 
the dam within that period, while any work left unfinished would be 
infallibly destroyed in June; practically therefore it would be necessary 
to wait till the following January before anything could be done. It was 
decided therefore to abandon the idea of constructing a temporary dam 
separate from the main dam merely to raise water to the height necessary 
for working the machinery, and simply to enclose the site of the main dam 
by a coffer-dam of sufficient height to keep out the ordinary cold weather 
stream. It was recognised that this coffer dam must be of masonry, as 
except from January to March it was impossible to reckon on a fortnight 
without a fresh which would carry away an earthen bank. 

“ The first step was to construct a row of masonry piers (see plan) as close 
as possible to the right edge of the deep chasm, extending from the tempo¬ 
rary dam to a short distance below the rear face of the main dam. These 
piers were 6 feet apart, 5 feet wide, with their tops at -f 13, 3 feet thick at 
top with their rear faces stepped 1 foot horizontal for 2 feet vertical. It 
would have been better to have made them somewhat thicker, as the 
dimeusions given left very little margin of stability against sudden shocks 
(in fact several were afterwards carried away by trees striking against them), 
but it was feared that if this were done it would not be possible to com¬ 
plete them by the end of March. The portion of the temporary dam 
between the line of piers and the right bank was removed and the piers 
continued a little higher up to a point where the central chasm was still 
narrower and shallower, and the line was then continued down the left side 
of the chasm to the left portion of the temporary dam. 

“ It wiU be seen from the plan that when the spaces between the piers 
were closed by wooden shutters or other means, and a dam put across the 
river between the lower end of the line of piers and the left bank, the site 
of the main dam would be completely enclosed as long as the discharge of 
the river did not exceed what could be carried by the space between the 
piers and the right bank (about 2,COO cubic feet per second), and if the 
coffer-dam were watertight it would only be necessary to pump out the 
enclosed space to enable the foundations of the main dam to be put in 
without difficulty. It was, however, certain that the coffer-dam would not 
be watertight, especially at the upstream end where the closure would have 
to be made by sand bags, and that the leakage would be more than the 


PEBIYAR PROJECT. 


63 


pumping power at our disposal could deal with. A second dam was, there¬ 
fore, necessary above the main dam, to take up this leakage and pass it by 
a minor byewasb on the left flank. It was at first intended to make this 
byewash with piers and shutters similar to those on the right bank, though 
not so high, but time did not allow of the completion of the whole of the 
piers, and for part of the length an earthen bank was substituted, which 
acted quite satisfactorily. The construction of all the piers shown on the 
plan was finished by the end of March 1889, when work was suspended till 
July. 

In most years there is an interval between the two monsoons (from 
the middle of August till the middle or the end of October) when the river 
is comparatively low, and it was thought possible that the cross dam might 
be put down and a portion of the masonry got in during this interval. In 
1889 this interval did not exist, the discharge of the river being almost as 
great in August as in July, and in September and October considerably 
higher. On the other hand, the north-east monsoon was an entire failure 
and there was very little rain in November. The intervals between the 
piers were in that month closed by wooden shutters and the central gap 
between the upper end of the right and left bank rows 'was closed by a mass 
of sand bags. It may be mentioned here that sand bags were very freely 
used and were found invaluable for closing gaps of aU kinds, such as th< se 
left by the destruction of piers by floods. In some cases they were put down 
when the velocity was so great as to carry away the bags like pieces of 
paper, but there was never any serious difficulty in checking the velocity by 
wooden trestles and planks under cover of which the bags were deposited. 
The flood of the 18th December passed 2 feet over the sand bag bank at the 
upper end of the coffer-dam and did no damage beyond the displacement 
of a few bags in the rear slope. Towards the .end of November it seemed 
likely that no more floods were to be expected, and the construction of the 
cross dams w^as put in hand ”. 

These dams were formed of wooden trestles carrying two rows of 
sheet piling with a filling of earth, and as these trestles played a promi¬ 
nent part in the operations in the bed of the river they merit a passing 
description. They were in lengths of about 30 feet and were built on 
shore. Uprights of lengths suitable to the depth of water were set up at 
distances of 5 feet apart in the line of the dam, 12 feet apart at top and 
sloping outwards and downwards with an inclination of 1 in 4. To 
these uprights were fastened longitudinals at vertical intervals of 10 feet. 
The longitudinals were doubled, that is, one was fastened before and one 
behind each upright. Distance pieces were then fixed and the structure 


HISTORY OP THE 


64 


[chap. 


•was ready for launching. The whole was made of nnsquared timber of 
a maximum diameter of 8 inches. 





Careful soundings had pre'vdously been taken, so that the requisite 
length of the verticals both on the upstream and downstream side was 
kno-wn and each trestle was built for a particular position. When all 
was ready the trestle was launched on a raft and floated into position, 
where 'it was sunk by tying on large boulders. Sheet piling was then 
driven do'wn to the bottom between the longitudinal guides, and thus an 
enclosed space was formed from which the water could be expelled by a 
filling of sand bags or loose earth according as the water was running or 
stiU. The rocky bottom of the river precluded the use of vertical piles 
unless of steel. There were no steel piles at hand nor any appliances for 
driving, them—a difficult matter in more than 20 feet of water; while 
timber trestles could be made up on the spot and put down much more 
quickly. The usual filling for a coffer-dam of this description is clay; 
but suitable clay was not available, the earth throughout these hiUs being 
either soft vegetable mould or decomposed syenite which stood well when 
dry but turned to slush in contact with water. A dam of rubble tipped 
into the river might have been made, but it would have leaked excessively 
and would have used up a great deal of stone which would have been 
irrecoverable. Such a dam, made watertight by earth or sand bags in 
front, would have cost more and taken longer to make, while all the stone 
readily procurable at the time was required for the rubble in mortar walls 
to be built inside the coffer-dams. 

The trestles being put down every energy was directed to enclosing 
the site of the main dam. Earth was poured into the trestles from both 







n.i 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


65 


ends day and night. The main stream of course passed by the right 
byewash, and the only current in the portion of the bed occupied by the 
cross dams was that due to the leakage (which subsequent measurement 
proved to be from 25 to 30 cubic feet a second according to the level of 
the water outside the piers and shutters). Though the water in the pool 
was thus nearly stiU there was a slight stream running through the sheet¬ 
piling which made the filling a slow business. To defeat the stream 
various devices were resorted to. Bamboo mats were nailed on the sheet¬ 
piling to cover the interstices, sand bags were sunk on the upstream toe 
to fill the crevices between the ends of the piles and the inequalities of the 
rocky bottom, and trestles were divided transversely into short lengths 
by vertical piles resting against the distance pieces. If earth was poured 
in gradually it went through in the form of muddy water, so large 
masses were collected at the tips and shovelled in hastily. By this means 
an abutment was formed at the two ends and the bed was also gradually 
covered and the filling then progressed quickly till but a short length 
remained to effect a junction between the two tips. The leakage however 
had concentrated at this point and the velocity was greatly increased, so 
much so that there was a difference of level of 1|- feet between the 
upstream side of the upper cross dam and the downstream side of the 
lower. The gap was almost filled again and again only to cave in and 
disappear at the last moment. The difficulty was at length overcome by 
a liberal use of grass rollers mixed with earth and by dividing the space 
into small squares by vertical planks and filling each in an instant with a 
large mass of earth. The crest of the upper cross dam was finished off 
at + 8, which was considered enough to turn the leakage into the left 
byewash; and the crest of the lower cross dam was stopped at + 6, 
This made the upper 26 feet high at the deepest place and the lower 21 
feet, the deep bed of the river at these two points being—18 and—15, 
respectively. It was calculated that the amount of earth used was more 
than 30 times the contents of the cross dams and the whole site of the 
main dam, and the space enclosed by the cross dams was covered with 
slush 6 to 8 feet deep. The cross dams even when finished had to be 
incessantly watched, and an emergency gang with a largo quantity of 
earth was kept ready day and night to repair the cavities that constantly 
occurred. Many of the coolies were extremely good at the work, being 
experienced in it from childhood. A ring of them would form round a 
cavity pressing close leg to leg and almost excluding or at least breaking 
the rush of water. They were then buried up to their waists in earth 


I 


66 


HISTORY OF THE 


[CHAt. 


by their comrades, and pulled out by main force, when the operation was 
repeated until bit by bit the breach was healed. Much of this work took 
place at night and the exposure in water at a level of 3,000 feet above 
the sea in December was very trying. The coolies had, therefore, to be 
encouraged and assisted in every possible way, and ■ had it not been for 
the medicinal virtues of arrack it is difficult to see how the Periydr Dam 
would ever have been built. The strain on the staff was of course also 
very great. 

During the operation above described the engine and pump were 
being placed in position. The engine, a 12-H.P. portable, had to be 
brought 7 miles from Tekadi along an exceedingly bad road over cul¬ 
verts made chiefly of branches of trees. When it at length arrived it 
was run out across the right byewash to the edge-of the pool, where it 
was fixed on a timber platform. The pump, an 8-inch centrifugal, was 
then fixed on another platform over the deep bed of the river and 
pumping commenced on December, 17th, three days after the cross dams 
were completed. On the following day there was very heavy rain 
(3 inches in 4 hours) and during the night the river swelled to a dis¬ 
charge of about 6,000 cubic feet a seconds Two of the piers were 
destroyed and the upper cross dam almost entirely carried away; the 
lower dam was much less injured than expected, nearly half of it being 
left almost undamaged; the trestles carrying the pump and pipes were 
overturned, and the pump buried in the bottom of the river where it 
remained till it was dug out in April. A still higher flood occurred on 
December 28th, and it was not until the middle of January that the 
river was low enough for work to be resumed. A certain delay was 
however inevitable while wood-work for a fresh set of trestles was being 
prepared. 

On January 12, 1890, the river was again attacked, and time being 
of the extremest importance the utmost despatch was used. The gap 
caused by the destruction of the piers above mentioned was closed by 
sand bags, and the erection of the trestles for the cross dams begun on the 
15th. The latter were entirely completed and pumping begun on the 
27th. The work was in one way easier, since the chasm in the river bed 
having been completely filled with mud, most of which remained, there 
was a mud instead of a rock bottom to work on. But many of the 
planks, timbers, sand bags, &c., also remained and the trestles were not 
so easily fixed or the piling rammed so close. In other respect the 
same difficulties were met as before,'but previous experience enabled them 


II.] 


PERIYAE PROJECT. 


67 


to be overcome more quickly. A slight delay was caused by a sKp in 
the lower dam which let the water into the enclosure when nearly dry, 
but the site was sufficiently clear to enable masonry to be begun on the 
30th. It was of course impossible, in the time available, to get in the 
foundation over the whole area of the dam, even up to normal water 
level, and it was therefore determined to construct only the front and 
rear portions {vide sections) up to such a level as would be safe from 
submergence by moderate freshes, leaving the central part to be done 
in the following season. Of the two walls to be thus constructed the 
front one was designed for a height of 25 above datum or 43 feet above 
deep bed, so as to allow the water to be raised as soon as the machinery 
was ready for work, though it was not expected that it would be com¬ 
pleted to this height during the current season. The lower wall was to 
be feet about datum, or 22^ feet above the deep bed—a height 
sufficient to keep out all floods which did not top the front wall. 

In order to build the front wall in the most satisfactory manner it 
would have been necessary to commence at the lowest point, leaving a 
vent for the leakage to be afterwards closed, and had there been time 
or room this course would have been followed. But for , this purpose it 
would have been obligatory to wait until all the water had been pumped 
from the enclosure, slush and debris cleared down to the rock round the 
pump and along the whole length of the foundation of the wall, and 
both the upper cross dam and the rest of the slush safely shored up. 
The time at disposal however admitted of no deiriy, nor was there suffi¬ 
cient space between the cross dam and the front line of the wall for 
timbering. As slush and debris were removed the flanks of the site of 
the w'all were first exposed, and they were at once cleaned up and 
masonry begun. The work was easy at first; but as more slush was 
removed the leakage became greater and the cross dam threatened to 
slip and had to be shored up, the timbers being removed and masonry sub¬ 
stituted in very small lengths, while the leakage was conducted along the 
toe round the new masonry to the pump. Had all the slush been removed 
before any masonry was built the cross darn would certainly have slipped 
or collapsed. As it was it constantly bulged and the leakage increased 
daily, and the only alleviation was to fill up at once with rammed earth 
between the cross dam and each new length of masonry. As the two 
ends approached each other all the difficulties became accentuated and 
the bulging and timbering and leakage conduits entrenched so on the 
site of the wall that it became a matter of the greatest trouble to 


68 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


adhere to the front line, and^ in fact for a short length in the deepest 
part the toe of the front wall is nearlj^ a foot behind its proper place. 
When but 2' remained to effect a junction the situation became acute. 
The leakage, which had greatly increased, was pouring through the small 
space in a rapid stream to the pump. A pipe had been left in the wall 
a little to the right, but the rock there being higher the pipe was higher 
and it was found impossible to back up the leakage sufficiently to force 
much of it through the pipe. The space of 2' width running through 
the thickness of the wall was made crooked. 

Front of Cross Dam, 

-__5i_Q_o_Q---Q-a- Q 


Gross Dam 



and at the back of the wall were built two piers^ attached to the wall 
and forming with it two grooves. In these grooves a shutter 3' deep 
was fixed and carefully caulked all round with oakum plastered with 
clay. It was very nearly watertight and the result was that the running 
water was raised to the level of the top of the shutter, below that level 
being still water. Long fiexible bolsters made of porous long cloth and 
filled with neat cement and a few stones were then laid very quickly in 
the still water up to the top of the shutter, and the pump was immedi¬ 
ately stopped and water allowed to rise in the enclosure. With the 
diminution of head the leakage and the consequent stream of course 
became much less and the cement had a chance of setting in still or 
nearly still water. At intervals of three days the water in the enclosure 
was pumped out and the process repeated, but with cement concrete instead 
of neat cement. With every rise of the wall the space between it and 
the cross dam was filled with earth and the leakage diminished until 





























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II.] 


peeiyIr project. 


69 


no special arrangements for building were required. The operation was, 
however, only partially successful, since a certain amount of water 
(about cubic foot a second), found its way through the cement bags 
and the concrete above it. This may be attributed partly to the inherent 
defects of the contrivance and partly to the extreme haste which was 
the very first consideration. The success would have been probably 
more pronounced had the cement and also the concrete been moistened 
and allowed to set for a few hours before being deposited. Had neat 
cement in bags been more freely used instead of eoncrete there would also 
probably have been less leakage, but the supply of cement was almost 
at an end and there was no means of getting more. 

No very great difldculty was experieneed in the eonstruction of the 
lower wall where there was plenty of room to work, the cross dam being 
50 feet from the masonry, but in this wall also the foundations of the 
flanks had to be put in before the centre, and the leakage, though much 
less in quantity, had to be dealt with in the same manner, since there 
were no pumps available for disposing of it outside. Consequently this 
wall also leaked at the base along the deepest part when finished. 

“ By the 18th February the masonry of the front wall had been car¬ 
ried across the bed but not to the full thickness. On the 24th February 
the rear wall was just completed and the front wall raised, though not to 
its full thickness, to a height of about 7 above the datum, except for a 
length of 40 feet in the middle which was from 6 to 7 feet lower. On that 
day there was a fresh, not very high but unusual at the time; it would 
probably have done little or no damage had not one of the line of piers 
given way, letting the water into the pool above the upper cross dam. The 
latter was of course topped and breached and the water passed over the 
masonry. In the upper wall there was space enough for the water to flow 
over at a very moderate velocity and absolutely no damage was done ; in 
the lower wall the top part, which was quite fresh, was more or less injured, 
but the damage was on the whole very much less than was expected. The 
lower cross dam was of course breached but not badly. The restoration of 
the earthen dams and pumping out the enclosure caused only three days’ 
delay, and work could have been resumed on the 28th, but the weather 
was so bad and the river so high that little or nothing could be done till the 
5th March, after which there were no further interruptions and work 
went on smoothly. A certain amount of trouble was experienced in extend¬ 
ing the front wall across the left bank byewash owing to an unexpected 
dip in the rock which went down to—8, but this caused no serious 


70 


HISTOEY OP THE 


[chap. 


difficulty. A vent was left in this portion of the wall for the passage of water 
into the left byewash, to be closed by a wooden shutter as soon as tho 
masonry was sufficiently advanced. 

“It was determined to leave the work for the season with the top of 
the front wall at 20 above datum, with the exception of a length of 60 feet 
on the left flank which was to be left at + 16, and by the 15th April this had 
been done, except the vent itself and a short length on each side which was 
left to bond in with the masonry used in closing the vent. The shutter 
was then put down and the vent built up as quickly as possible. This 
operation was interrupted by a rather heavy flood on the 19th April, 
which passed over the lower portion of the wall and did some little damage 
to the newest part of the work ; the interruption was particularly annoying 
at a time when fever was beginning to show itself and there was consider¬ 
able difficulty in obtaining labour ; the work was however Anally completed 
by the 26th April. 

‘ ‘ While the front and rear walls were in progress, piers with their 
crests at -f- 15 had been built between those of the coffer dam piers on the 
right bank which came between the two walls, so as to increase the carry¬ 
ing capacity of the main byewash from -)- 12 to + 15. The dam site is thus 
enclosed by a solid wall which will not be submerged except on compara¬ 
tively rare occasions, and the remainder of the foundations can be put in, 
under cover of this wall, without serious difficulty. There will be occasional 
interruptions, but they will be interruptions only, nnd will not involve 
the destruction of any work already done. When work is resumed next 
season the front wall will be raised to 25 and the entrance to the 
main byewash closed to a sufficient height to cause a sufficient portion of 
the river water to pass above the weir (which has been completed) leading 
to the turbine for driving the machinery. Th'e walls described above were 
not benched into the rock, as time was of the utmost importance; they were 
founded on the natural surface, which was carefully cleaned, with portland 
cement; this material was used for the lower 2 feet of the walls through¬ 
out their thickness, and for the front 2 feet throughout their height; the 
remainder was built in ordinary mortar; the lime is of admirable quality, 
moderately hydraulic, and has been exposed to very severe tests which it has 
stood satisfactorily. It was found by careful measurements that the total 
leakage into the enclosure after the latter was pumped dry was about half 
a cubic foot per second, of which quite half and probably more was through 
and under the shutters of the right byewash. The leakage between the 
front and rear walls and the rock is confined to a short length in each wall, 
and no difficulty is anticipated in stopping it completely when the enclosure 
is again cleared out.” 







Aeg.: N0..488IS 
CopIetf4.4I0 


1S98 










































































II.] 


peeiyXr project. 


71 


The operations above described from the beginning of December to 
the middle of April were described by the Chief Engineer, Colonel 
Pennycuick, in bis report to Government, as the most anxious, diffi¬ 
cult and exhausting of any that bad come within bis experience, and 
the staff received the thanks of Government for their services on this 
occasion. 

Work was re-commenced at the end of June 1890, and as for some 
years the principal difficulty encountered was the control of the river 
during construction, it is necessary before proceeding further to touch on 
this subject. The method adopted for disposing of the normal discharge 
was in principle briefly as follows. All the water was turned round the 
right flank. Taking the foundation enclosure as a start the river was 
already raised and diverted, running through vents between piers built 
in the dry. Similar piers AA were built in the front line of the dam 
further to the right leaving vents with floors at a higher level, and these 
piers were connected with the line of the rear face of the dam by another 
hn£ of piers BB with groves into which planks could be inserted. The 
height of these piers BB was so calculated that when the original bye- 
wash was closed and the river was turned through the vents AA the 
ordinary discharge of the river and small freshes should not top the piers 
BB. When the foundation enclosure reached a level equal to the piers 
BB the front wall of the dam was raised somewhat higher. The 
original byewash was then closed, the water rose and the river began to 
run to the right of the piers BB. The space between BB and the found¬ 
ation enclosure was then rapidly brought up to the level of the work 
already built and was then included and the whole went ou together. 
New piers CC and DD were then built in the dry, and as soon as the 
body of the dam reached a sufficient height the process was repeated, the 
river raised and diverted, and a fresh portion included. In this manner 
the dam was built up to the level of + 60. 

This method had disadvantages. If the discharge of the river 
exceeded about 2,000 cubic feet a second the portion last included was at 
once flooded ; and if the discharge exceeded what could thus be carried 
off (which it constantly did) the front wall of the dam was topped and 
the whole work submerged till the fresh subsided. There was thus a 
danger of damage to new work, and during the early days (when the 
lake formed above the dam was small and of little absorbing capacity) a 
considerable source of delay. This was, however, only a comparative evil. 
An absolute and constant disadvantage was that it caused the dam to be 


HISTORY OF THE 


12 


[chap. 


built piecemeal, and resulted in a series of vertical joints. A longitudinal 
section would show thus— 



More than this it necessitated a great portion of the work being built 
irnder a head of w'ater behind a front waU which had to be kept 
considerably in advance of the rest of the work. 

There were besides some constructive drawbacks. The piers in the 
front line of the dam were several times washed away and had to be 
built very strong indeed, thus taking up a good deal of the -waterway, 
always small on account of the steepness of the side of the hill. The 
transverse piers were also constantly washed away and the difficulty 
of replacing them in swift running water was beyond description. A 
continuous wall could not be substituted, or there would have been no 
bond between the body of the work and the portions successively 
included; nor could these piers be made very large, or the bond would 
have been insufficient unless wdde intervals -were left, and this again was 
impracticable, because of the impossibiHty of handling large shutters 
under the conditions that prevailed. Moreover when the earth was 
cleared from the side of the hiU the rock exposed was not on a uniform 
slope but lay mostly in alternate dips and scarps, so that the space 
available for each fresh diversion channel was very unequal, and to 
ensure a reasonable discharging capacity the piers had sometimes to be 
brought very high. Pinally, nearly all the materials, which were on the 
right bank, had to be carried across the river to the work. The bridges 
had to be changed each time the river was diverted and were constantly 
damaged by floods. 













THE DAM DURING CONSTRUCTION 


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II.] 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


73 


It will be of interest to notice briefly the other methods proposed for 
dealing with the water during construction. The question, generally 
important in all large dams, was here accentuated by the torrential 
nature of the river, the volume of water it carried during a great part of 
the year, and the frequency of strong freshes from local thunder storms 
even in the dry months. There was no experience as a guide, since no 
dam has ever hitherto been built across a river so large as the Periydr and 
combining so many refractory characteristics. The south-west monsoon 
commencing here at the end of May continues with more or less force but 
without complete intermission till October, when it is replaced by the 
north-east monsoon, and rain continues to fall till the latter half of 
November. There is sometimes a partial break in August, but the 
weather is then always uncertain and the drainage from previous rain 
prevents the river from running low. From the rainfall register it may 
be seen that the number of rainless days between June Ist and November 
15th was on the average but 34 for the years 1888 to 1895 inclusive. 
During this period the discharge seldom fell below 1,000 cubic feet a 
second. From the middle of November till the middle of May the 
weather is usually fine and dry but in these hiUs thunder storms are of 
frequent occurrence and a month seldom goes by without one, resulting in 
a fresh of greater or less violence. The highest recorded fresh reached 
the figure of no less than 120,000 cubic feet a second, while freshes of 
10,000 to 20,000 cubic feet a second are not infrequent; and the rocky 
bottom of the river, its steep fall and confined bed cause great turbulence 
and a high velocity, a large flood running at the rate of 10 feet to 15 
feet a second and bringing down with it big trees as well as a great 
quantity of other floating and rolling debris, which was a constant 
danger and trouble. It was almost impossible, at any rate generally 
impracticable, to build piers in the course of the river strong enough to 
permanently resist the impact of these floating battering-rams and nothing 
but a heavy continuous wall with a rock abutment successfully encountered 
them for any length of time, and then not without showing severe signs 
of the fray. 

In the proposals submitted by Colonel (then Major) Pennycuick it 
was intended to drive two tunnels at a low level through the flanks 
of the dam, as described in Chapter I. The then Inspector-Q-eneral of 
Irrigation took great exception to this proposal, criticising it in a note 
of which the following is an excerpt:— 

“ When in Madras the proposed arrangements were explained to me, 
and I then stated that I would never agree to so dangerous an arrangement, 


74 


HISTORY OP THE 


[chap. 


and suggested that if no other means could he contrived the water might he 
passed over the dam hy means of large syphon tubes. Major Pennycuich 
stoutly maintains that his plan is the hest of all possible alternatives, that 
no risk is ever to he apprehended from its adoption, and that it combines in 
the highest degree the elements of security, efficiency and economy. 
Having most carefully considered all Major Pennycuick’s proposals and 
arguments, my objections to the culverts remain absolutely insuperable. 
I cannot conceive how an Engineer of his intelligence could have brought 
himself to devise such a method of disposing of the escape water. A 
glance will show how soon floating brushwood and grass would clog and 
jam the self-acting sluice. The “ draw” into the tunnel would of course 
be very great, and unless the floods in the Periyar run quite clean and free 
of floating rubbish I don’t believe the sluice would remain in working order 
one hour after a flood began to come down. Again, supposing it to 
remain in perfect order, it is quite plain that the powerful eddy generated 
by the cross currents at the entrance of the tunnel, would block the month 
so as to reduce the discharge immensely. This would necessitate a larger 
section against the adoption of which Major Pennycuick himself protests. 
But again, supposing the tunnels to have answered all expectations during 
construction, I cannot well imagine a more fatal source of danger to a 
lofty dam than two culverts passing underneath its flanks, closed by shutters 
exposed to the enormous pressure due to an average head of at least 135 
feet of water !! ” 

The Inspector-G-eneral then went on to state briefly his belief that 
the water could easily be passed by leaving 200 feet on either flank 
alternately 2 feet and 4 feet below the rest of the work. 

The objections, it will be seen, were directed against the following 
points : (1) against the gear by which the sluices were to be actuated, (2) 
against the adoption of either a greater section or a greater velocity in 
the culverts, (3) against the existence of a culvert of any kind through 
the dam when completed. 

There can be no possible doubt that, speaking generally, in a case of 
this kind culverts are by far the best plan of disposing of the water 
from the point of view of convenience and construction. Nearly every 
large dam is built so, unless there are very special reasons favouring 
another method. It has the immense advantage of keeping the water 
low throughout the progress of the work, which is, therefore, built with¬ 
out joints and without a head of water outside it, and is allowed any 
time that may be wished to set before resisting horizontal pressure. 
Both syphons and flank depressions entail raising the water as the work 
advances and keeping the two at nearly the same level. The cohesive 


11 .] 


PEEIYAR PROJECT. 


75 


material in the present case being a good but not extraordinary and 
only moderately hydraulic lime, more objectionable conditions can 
hardly be imagined. Both these methods too bristled with constructive 
difficulties which, had the Periydr been an insignificant stream, could 
have been surmounted, but in such a river were insuperable. When it 
came to the point the syphons were speedily dismissed as impracticable, 
and the water was actually passed not over but round the flanks in the 
manner previously described, thus avoiding at any rate horizontal joints. 
But the cost, the damage, the innumerable inconveniences may be said to 
have delayed the completion of the work a full year and added to the 
expense a sum variously estimated at from 1 to 4 lakhs of rupees. 
The drawbacks were indeed so intolerable that when the dam reached 
the level of -f 60 this method was finally abandoned and the water 
w'as passed by a tunnel or culvert through the dam. It gave no 
trouble, it was easily controlled, and eventually closed and plugged 
without the slightest difficulty. 

The Inspector-Generaks first objection was to the sluice arrange¬ 
ments, which could how'ever have been designed differently. Most of 
the floating debris could have been arrested by a boom across the river, 
as was actually done at one stage of the work, and another type of 
sluice with suitable gratings need have caused no anxiety. The prin¬ 
ciple laid down was that 20 feet per second should be the limiting 
velocity through the culverts, and gearing could easily have been 
devised which would work satisfactorily under a head of 30 or 40 feet, 
that is to say until the dam reached a level of about -b 50. At this 
level similar culverts might have been made and the original culverts 
closed. These could control the river until the dam rose to + 100, 
when the depression on the left flank was available as an escape. In 
several large dams culverts have been left which work easily under a 
head as great as this, and at Bhdtgarh such culverts after being used 
to scour out silt are closed and remain closed under a much greater 
head. On the whole, therefore, it seems insufficient to have rejected for 
this reason what was obviously the best plan on other grounds. 

There is apparently a misunderstanding underlying the Inspector- 
General’s second objection, viz.: that the area of the culverts must be 
increased in order to obtain the required discharge or else a greater 
velocity must be expected. The approaches to the culverts as proposed, 
were to be tunnelled out of the solid rock and in these the section 
might have been enlarged or the velocity increased without serious 


76 


fliSTOEt OF THE 


[chap. 

objection. The covered cutting was quite straight and had a clear outfall, 
and the discharge and the velocity must have been very nearly accord¬ 
ing to calculation. In any case the floor was purposely intended to be 
benched out of the solid rock and a sligh tly increased velocity was of 
slight importance. 

The third objection referred not so much to the culverts themselves 
during construction as after the completion of the dam. There was 
no crying necessity for the culverts to remain, since the Periydr is not a 
silt-bearing river, and as the lake could not silt up in any measurable 
length of time no scour was needed. By choosing a favourable moment 
when the river was at its lowest there would have been no trouble in 
eventually plugging them, and very simple means would have sufficed 
to make such plugging sound from a constructive standpoint, that 
is to make a good and firm junction, well bonded in and practicably 
free from leakage. The culvert afterwards used at -f- 60 was plugged 
in such a manner as to be free from leakage and indistinguishable from 
the rest of the dam in appearance. The culvert used during the 
construction of the Yyrnwy Dam was plugged with but 15 feet of brick¬ 
work and is perfectly tight, and the addition of an asphalte expansion 
joint removes the matter from the possibility of doubt. It may, on the 
whole, be laid down as an axiom that almost no obstacles should prevent 
the adoption of low level escape culverts in a large dam. Difficulties 
with the sluices or delay in the first installation will be many times 
repaid in subsequent speed, cheapness, and convenience of construction, 
and in the quality of the work turned out. 

The narrative may now be resumed. On the recommencement of 
the work in June 1890 the foundation enclosure was pumped out and 
cleared of about 80,000 cubic feet of slush and decayed rock, and the 
solid rock laid bare. The surface was found to be exceedingly irregular 
and rough, and no benching was required, the more so as the bed sloped 
the reverse way to the fall of the river and sliding was impossible. The 
leakage through the front and rear walls had then to be suppressed, for 
which purpose walls of rubble masonry were built 3 feet behind each 
and pulsometers placed between to keep down the water. As soon as 
these walls were completed the water was allowed to rise and a 6-feet seal 
of cement concrete was formed either by depositing from skips or by 
forcing grout into broken stone previously laid. After the concrete 
was set the water was pumped out and the space was entirely filled 
with concrete of surki mortar. This made the front and rear perfectly 


THE DAM DURING CONSTRUCTION 















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II.] 


peeiyIr project. 


77 


watertight, and the only other leakage was through the shutters on the 
right, to stop which the spaces between the piers were closed with 
rubble masonry, thus forming an irregular continuous waU. The found¬ 
ations were thus perfectly enclosed and work inside could proceed uninter¬ 
ruptedly except when a flood in the river overflowed everything. 

The deep bed of the river, though of undoubtedly solid rock, contained 
a number of small springs, each of which was confined in a well of cut 
stone in cement 6 inches in diameter, which was brought up with the 
rest of the work. It was found that these springs ceased to rise after a 
depth of 6 or 8 feet had been reached, and they were then aU sealed with 
cement grout. The river bed was meanwhile divided into partitions by 
2-feet walls of rubble masonry and the partitions were filled with 
concrete. By the end of the season (April 1891) the concrete was raised 
to an average level of + 0, or a depth of 15 to 18 feet in the deepest 
place. 

On the right of the front waU and in a line with it four new piers 
were built leaving four vents with siU level at -f 10. The piers built the 
previous year in immediate extension of the front wall at the right, 
through which the river had hitherto been running, were washed away, 
so the river was diverted by a bank of sand bags and a solid wall built in 
extension of the front wall left at + 16 to serve as a weir. The normal 
diseharge then flowed through the vents at -f 10. The original front 
wall was then raised to + 30 and thickened, and the extension to -}- 20, 
and more piers were built in eontinuation on the right, leaving vents 
at + 17, 4- 20, and others higher. From the vent at + 17 piers 
running across the dam were built and continued to the workshed, and 
the river being then again diverted and raised to these vents the water 
was available for the turbine. 

A great deal of earth and j boulders was also excavated from the 
site of the dam on both flanks. The trial pits dug for the purposes of 
the estimate were thought to disclose solid rock at from lO to 85 feet 
below the ground. In some instances rock had unmistakably been 
exposed, in aU the trial pit was always continued through several feet of 
water and the bottom carefully sounded with steel jumpers before it was 
concluded that solid rock had been reached. There were thus good 
grounds for the belief, but it did not by any means prove always correct. 
The regular sequence was dark vegetable mould, red clay hard when 
dry but slushy when exposed to water, then small boulders, then larger 



18 


WISTORY OP THE 


[chap. 


(sometimes enormous) boulders ; and it was these that the trial pits had 
occasionally stopped on. In the excavation for the dam it was often 
50 or 60 feet from the top before real rock was reached, and the surface 
needed a good deal of blasting and scaling with pick and chisel before 
being fit to build upon. The danger of a sloping bed, however, seldom 
occurred, since the lie of the rock was not uniform up the side of the 
valley but in alternate flats and scarps. No precautions were, therefore, 
taken against the sliding stress down hill. 

These operations closed the working season 1890-91. The total 
quantity put into the dam was not great, but every operation was one 
of difficulty, and the whole work was so near the normal level of the 
river that it was constantly submerged and interrupted by floods. 

Work was recommenced at the end of June 1891. From this point 
things became comparatively easier and more regular, but interruption 
and damage by floods were not infrequent. The south-west monsoon 
was fairly benevolent, but in October the work was entirely submerged 
on five separate occasions and 7,000 cubic feet of rubble masonry and 
20,000 cubic feet of concrete were washed out; and in November it was 
submerged four times. These floods, though they did not damage 
appreciably the main dam itself, often washed away piers or other 
isolated structures, which had to be replaced with infinite trouble in the 
full force of the stream. There were very many such incidents of which 
no detailed record has beeen kept. It was so impossible to procure 
articles specially fitted for the service under ever-varying conditions, that 
anything which happened to be on the spot was impressed into use. 
For instance the current was stopped on one occasion by a large bamboo 
raft loaded with sand bags till it sank, on another by an abattis of trunks 
of trees and thick steel jumpers, in fact anything that would so far 
break the current as to allow a bank to be raised of sand bags or heavy 
stones. The current was often so strong that stones of 8 or 10 cubic 
feet, in weight, perhaps, f of a ton, were rolled easily along the bed. 
This kind of work was interesting, but made great calls upon the resource 
and energy of the staff, and the delays and interruptions were harassing 
in the extreme. Nevertheless the average monthly progress gradually 
increased as was to be expected with improved organization and ex¬ 
perience. By the end of March 1892 the front wall was raised to + 87 
and the cross waU bounding the diversion to -f 33, the rear wall to 
+ 23, and the concrete in the enclosure to an average of + 13. Three 
new piers making vents at + 30 were also built in continuation of the 


II.] 


PEEIYAR PBOJECT. 


79 


front wall on ihe right. The total quantity put into the dam during 
this season (1891-92) was— 

CUBIC FEET. 

Concrete. 544,750 

Bubble masonry .. .. .. .. ,, 274,003 


Total .. 818,753 


the highest combined outturn in any month being 148,097 cubic feet in 
February 1892. 

The work was submerged in April by a flood which rose 20 feet in 
twelve hours and carried away two piers of the turbine weir, and again 
in July when the rest of the weir was carried away and the bridge 
across it overturned. The weir was re-built solid instead of with piers, 
but meanwhile the turbine was idle and work greatly delayed and no 
real progress was made on the main dam till the middle of August. 
From this time it was rapid and uniform. In January 1893 the dam 
had advanced so far that it became necessary to include the channel 
through which the river had been running for the last two seasons, and 
to make a new bye wash on a higher level. Two of the vents were 
closed without difficulty, the third being postponed till March and neces¬ 
sitating a lift of 20 feet to the river. This, one of the many arduous 
incidents that were an every-day occurrence, is described in an extract 
from" the Progress Eeport for March 1893. 

On the 5th evening under a blue sky with light passing clouds and 
with a high barometer, the wrought-iron semi-cylindrical shutter was 
lifted by a gantry and moved laterally into position in front of the vent 
to be closed. The sill level of the vent was -f 21, but in order to give access 
to a new sand bed 5 miles above the dam, plank shutters had been dropped 
into the vent in January up to a level of + 29, over which 2 20 feet of 
water was passing on the fifth. The river level was, therefore, -f- 31*20 at 
the time of shifting the W. I. shutter, and judging from the fact that at 
the closing of the adjoining vent the river had occupied nearly 13^ days to 
rise from -f- 20*50 to 4- 31, it was to be inferred from the known contours 
and capacities of the lake at successive levels that it would occupy nearly 
five weeks in rising from -f 31 to its new minimum level of + 43, at which 
it would be passing through the new vents having their sills at 41. 
This would have given ample time to build up the vent behind the W.I. 
shutter and to build a coffer dam wall along the rear toe of the dam across 






80 


HI8TOBY OF THE 


[chap. 


the old turbine channel to prevent the water passing through the new vents 
(when it should reach them) from backing into the site of the dam 
immediately behind the W.I. shutter. At 3-30 p.m. on the 5th the 
shutter was in position fairly watertight, with a little caulking only to be 
done and with a pulsometer in position in the sump behind it to pump out 
any small unavoidable leakage. Heavy rain must, however, have fallen at 
the source of the river during the day and for many days following, for 
though the barometer and the aspects of the weather at Periyar continued 
very favourable, the river began to rise in the afternoon at a much greater 
pace than was anticipated and before the caulking could be finished or the 
masonry fairly begun it had reached the level of the new vents by midnight 
on the 6th. The shutter was artificially increased 4 feet by the addition of 
a plank ring, and the shutter itself radially strutted to resist the increased 
pressure thereby engendered, but the river continued to rise notwithstanding 
that the weather continued fine, and by the 9th evening the water was 
flush with the top of the plank ring. During the 9th night the river rose 
very quickly, reading 45-10 at 7 p.m., 49-50 at 3 a.m. (10th March) and 
50-15 at 8 A.M. It fell again to 47 by the 11th morning, when it was found 
that the plank ring had gone, the iron shutter itself remaining uninjured. 
By the 13th morning it had fallen to 43, but during the flood so large a ^ 
quantity of d6bris had come down the river, passing \inder the boat house 
boom, and over the shutter, that the top ring was battered in, and losing in 
consequence, its virtue as an arch was torn away from the second ring and 
was subsequently found in fragments below. The position of affairs at this 
point was, therefore, that about 6 feet of water was passing over the top of 
the iron shutter (now shortened by 4 feet by the loss of the top ring) and 
2 feet of water through the vents, and the problem of stopping the water 
passing over the iron shutter remained. The river fell slowly till it reached 
41'60 and remained stationary. A wooden barge was at 10 a.m. on the 
20th floated over the shutter and loaded with earth till it rested lightly on 
the second (now the top) ring, the top edge of which fortunately remained 
intact and perfectly horizontal, making a fairly good joint -with the bottom 
of the boat. The middle of the boat being over the air space enclosed by 
the shutter and consequently unsupported except by the buoyancy of the 
remainder of the boat, care was taken to load only the floating portion of the 
boat, so as to strain it as little as possible. A number of gunny bags were 
next stitched end to end and twisted into a rope, which was lowered round the 
outer side of the boat and pulled tight along the joint between the shutter 
and the boat bottom. The boat being then slightly lightened till the 
draught of water between the boat and shutter drew the rope well into the 
joint, the boat was again loaded and an almost perfectly tight joint achieved. 
A single pulsometer would, at this point, have been sufficient to deal with the 


PEBIYAR PROJECT. 


n.] 

leakage, but misfortune was not to end here, and the next event was that a 
fragment, fortunately small, of the masonry ring on which the shutter rested 
blew in, admitting under the head of 20 feet a flow far beyond the capacity 
of the pulsometer. Sand bags were thrown in front of this new leak 
which reduced its discharge to about 2 cubic feet a second, and an 8-inch 
centrifugal pump with the pulsometer would now have sufficed to keep down 
all the leakage. But the difficulty of getting an engine on to the front wall 
and of fitting up a centrifugal pump would have been such that it was 
decided in preference to try syphons : 3-inch plank shutters were there¬ 
fore put in to a height of 12 feet across the face of the vent behind the iron 
shutter and carefully caulked, so that the water between them and the iron 
shutter should form a tank 12 feet deep, and with the head thus obtained 
two syphons of 4-inch piping were found sufficient to dispose of all the 
leakage, except a very trifling amount through the plank shutters between 
which and the face line of the dam there was just room to insert a 
pulsometer. Masonry in portland cement was begun on the 23rd afternoon 
and it was thought best to work only by day, as it has been repeatedly 
found that progress is incomparably better in quality and inappreciably 
slower with day work only. It was moreover of the greatest importance 
that the masonry should be absolutely watertight, as it will, during part of 
next season, have a head of more than 20 feet against it with concrete in 
progress behind it. The time of Ailing in the vent was one of the greatest 
anxiety, for though the normal discharge of the river in March should have 
been easily passed by the new vents without topping the boat as it rested 
on the iron shutter, the river continued to rise steadily from the moment 
the boat got into position till a depth of 4^ feet was running through the 
vents indicating a discharge of about 550 cubic feet a second, or about seven 
times as^great as the discharge all through December, January and February. 
The boat during this period was kept from being topped by raising the 
three outer sides with planking, caulked and strutted, and as its buoyancy 
was thus greatly increased, causing it to lift off the shutter, the greatest 
care had to be exercised in loading it—as the river rose—so as to keep the 
joint tight, and in lightening it as the river fell to prevent all chance of 
the shutter buckling under its weight. The river did not rise beyond 45-50 
however and the masonry was completed without accident by 4th A.pril. 
After keeping the syphons and pulsometer at work for another week the 
water was allowed to rise against the new work and the sweating through 
it is all but imperceptible. The operation of closing this vent extending 
over 30 days was one of great labour and anxiety, and the whole avail¬ 
able staflt of officers and upper subordinates were engaged in it by night or 
by day.” 

L 


83 


HISTOTIY OF THE 


[chap. 


The condition of the dam in April 1893 was then as follows :— 

The front wall + 60 throughout except 152 feet at the left flank 
kept back at + 50 to serve as a weir. The concrete at an average level 
of + 38, with the rear wall of such height above the concrete as to 
ensure a sufficient water-cushion in case of the front wall being topped. 
The total quantities put in during the year were — 


CUBIC FEET. 

Concrete .. .. .. .. .. 432,622 

Bubble masonry .. .. .. .. 513,385 


Total .. 946,007 


the greatest aggregate in any one month being 158,935 cubic feet in 
December. 

His Excellency the G-overnor of Madras visited the works in October 
1892. 

During the next season (1893-94) the absorbing capacity of the lake 
grew so much that the work was never entirely submerged, though water 
sometimes passed over that portion on the left flank which had been left 
low as a weir. Even this short experience proved conclusively what the 
effect would have been had this method of disposing of the river been 
adopted en bloc. As soon as the brunt of the south-west monsoon was 
over, this low portion was brought up to the level of the rest and the river 
was then raised from vents at -f- 41 to vents at 48, an operation which 
gave little difficulty except that the vents to be closed were arched over 
and trouble was experienced in making a watertight joint with the 
crown of the arch. This was done by leaving a ring in the filling and 
in the soffit and grouting with cement under pressure. It was found 
that the concrete flooring extending over the whole width of the dam 
behind these vents and over which the discharge had been passing for nine 
months with a velocity of occasionally not less than 20 feet a second and 
seldom less than 10 feet a second was almost absolutely uninjured. This 
concrete had not even been plastered— a fact which speaks volumes for 
the quahty of the mortar; but there had grown on the surface a thin 
slime of a nature which was not investigated, but which seemed to afford 
a complete protection on a smooth surface. The method which had been 
found by constant trial and error to bo the handiest for closing these 
vents and raising the river in short lifts was briefly as follows : — 









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Photo-Print., Survey Office, Madras. 

1898 

































































































































II.] 


PERIYAR PROJEOT. 


83 


In front of tlie upstream face was built a flooring of masonry to 
1 foot below tbe sill of the vent, and on this flooring two strong piers 
eaob with ,two grooves, a stout wooden beam being built into tbe piers 
immediately behind the second pair of grooves, lletween the sill and the 
second groove a small sump was left. The grooves were rendered smooth 
with cement, and also a length of the floor 1 foot wide in line with each 
pair of grooves. All this was done in the dry before the vent was 
brought into use, and the river was then turned through the vent. As 
soon as it became necessary to close the vent and raise the river to a 
higher level, an opportunity was selected when the river was low and 
the stream in the vent not more than 4 or 5 feet deep if possible, the 
velocity being about 10 feet per second. Three-inch planks a foot wide 
were then dropped into the front grooves and hammered down with 
heavy wooden rammers till they nearly reached the bottom. This broke 
the force of the stream, but no attempt was made to make these planks 
watertight. Similar planks were hammered down much more carefully 
in the second pair of grooves, and heavy vertical timbers resting against 
the horizontal w'ooden beam were at the same time inserted in holes left 
in the floor, against which the planks were straightened by wedges. 
Otherwise they gave considerably. The planks were then caulked. 
The lowering of the planks was effected by ropes passing through holes 
in them, afterwards stopped with wooden taper plugs. This enabled 
most of the planks to be withdrawn and used again. The leakage 
through the second row of planks was generally small enough to be dis¬ 
posed of by a bucket or a small pulsometer, but in the rare eases when it 
was more the space between the two rows of planks was filled with sand 
bags and earth. This, however, entailed extra strutting. The arrange¬ 
ment always proved satisfactory, the only troublesome part being ham¬ 
mering down the bottom shutters. Behind the screen thus formed the 
masons were able to build up the vent perfectly dry and the whole 
operation seldom exceeded three or four days. 

The progress on the main dam was steady and uneventful, and by 
the end of February the following total quantities had been put in:— 

CUBIC FEET. 


Concrete .. .. .. .. .. .. 752,935 

Rubble masonry .. .. .215,323 


Total .. 968,258 






84 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


the greatest aggregate in any one month being 172,350 cubic feet in 
January 1894. The front wall was at + 80 and the concrete at + 68^ 
a culvert with floor at + 60 having been begun. This was arched over 
during the recess. 

The works were closed for the season early in March on account of 
an epidemic of cholera which commenced in the middle of February and 
which no exertions could arrest. The coolies speedily dispersed to their 
homes and by the first week in March had dwindled to a few hundreds, 
the camp was burnt, and preparations made to transfer it to the other 
side of the river. 

The tunnel or culvert through the dam must be the cause of a 
slight deviation from the continuous narrative, since it is not only of 
professional interest but was the subject of some correspondence. When 
the Government of India heard of its construction a despatch was 
addressed to the Madras Government calling attention to the very strong 
objections to a tunnel raised by the Inspector-General of Irrigation 
before the estimates were sanctioned, and inquiring why syphons, as 
then proposed, were not employed; and adding that they were unable, 
from the information received, to follow the proposals of the Madras 
Government or to comprehend how the lake was to be regulated and 
floods disposed of. In reply the Madras Government forwarded a copy 
of the specification and a note by Colonel Pennycuick, Chief Engineer, of 
which the following are extracts:— 

“A tunnel to be left in the body of the main dam 10 feet wide by 
feet high to springing of arch, which is to have a radius of 6^ feet and rise 
of 2J feet. 

“ The centre of the tunnel to be where the level of the rock at the fi’ont 
face is 60'00 above datum, and the heights to be measured at the centre. 
They will be a little more or less at the sides according to the lateral slope 
of the rock. If the rock falls from front to rear the crown of the tunnel to 
be kept level. If it rises the crown to be raised to correspond in steps of 
10 feet width with a minimum height of 11 feet between floor and crown, 
the rock always forming the floor. 

“ The sides and soj6B.t to be plastered with good surki mortar. 

“ In front a masonry chamber to be constructed 10 feet wide (in the 
direction of the length of the dam) and 12 ^ feet long, to be surrounded by a 
Wall 10 feet thick on three sides, the fourth side being the dam itself. The 
wall to have its crest at + 74’00, except for a space of 14^^ feet square, 


THE LAKE FROM BELOW THE DAM 

















It.] 


pekiyIk peoject. 


85 


as shown in the drawings, which is to he at -1- 73'50. This space to be 
surrounded^ on three sides by cutstone 2 feet wide and 1 foot deep set in 
Portland cement. 

“Two and a quarter feet in length of the chamber being the portion 
nearest the dam to be arched over with an arch similar to that of the tunnel. 
The remainder of the chamber to be open at top. 

“In the lower side wall of the chamber, the side nearest the river bed, 
an arched vent to be left, 10 feet wide for the outer half of the wall and 9 
feet for the inner half with sill at + 60-00 and crown at + 67-00, the rise 
being feet. 

“Two lengths of 40 lb. rails to be built into the masonry across each 
corner of the chamber at top, one to rest at 2^ feet from the corner, the 
other at If feet, the upper surface of rails to be at 73-60. 

“ A seating for a semi-circular iron shutter to be built in front of the 
vent in the side wall up to 4- 60-00.” 

“The regulation of the discharge through the tunnel is effected as 
follows (see Plate X). 

“ The top of the chamber at the mouth is closed by a plate of cast iron 
14 feet square with an opening 10 feet in diameter. This plate fits into a 
recess in the top of the masonry 14^ feet square, so as to leave a space of 
3 inches all round between the side of the recess and the side flanges of the 
plate, to be packed in with neat cement. When the vent in the side wall 
of the chamber is closed the only route by wliich the water of the lake 
can find access to the tunnel will be through the circular opening in the 
covering plate. 

“At a distance of 4 ^ feet above the covering plate is fixed a horizontal 
circular plate. This plate whose outside diameter is the same as that of 
the opening of the lower plate is supported by 24 uprights of 40 lb. rails 
imbedded in the fioor of the chamber -with sockets at top and bottom, and 
bed plates under the bottom sockets. 

“ The circumferential space between the top and bottom plates is closed 
by a W.I. cylinder of sufficient size to move easily over the outer flange 
of the top plate, to be lifted by a winch on a floating platform and kept in 
position horizontally by guides. 

* “ It is evident that as the water has free access all round this cylinder it 
will be in complete equilibrium and its own weight will be the only resist* 
ance to be overcome in lifting it. The admission of water to the tunnel can 
thus be properly regulated. The discharge through the tunnel is to be 
limited to 12,000 cubic feet per second, and so long as the discharge of the 
river does not exceed this amount the surface of the lake can be maintained 


86 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


constantly at any level that may be desired. When this discharge is 
exceeded the water level must rise until it reaches the vents in the Left 
Bank Extension. 

“ The vent in the left face of the chamber wall is to serve for the passage 
of water while the lake is risicg to the lefel at which it can discharge freely 
through the tunnel (about + 77 or + 78); and at the end of the season it 
will be permanently built up from behind an iron semi-circular shutter. 

“Until the dam is completed the water of the lake should not be allowed 
to rise above -4- 120, to which level it can easily be kept by the combined 
available methods of discharge. When the dam is completed the water 
will be run down to the sluice, which will be closed and caulked with lead.” 

Then follow some directions as to closing the tunnel, which need not 
be set down, as a different method (described on page 87) was afterwards 
preferred. Colonel Pennycnick then continues:— 

“ I have kept silence for upwards of ten years on the subject of the 
objections of the Inspector-General for Irrigation, and should prefer to keep 
silence for ten years longer. In the present connection it is sufficient to say 
that the decision of the Government of India to prohibit a low level tunnel, 
unfortunate though I consider it, has been accepted and loyally adhered to, 
but that I do not consider there is any aualogy between such a tunnel and 
the one now under consideration which is half way up the dam, which has 
never to be w^orked under a head of more than 46 feet, and which is'con- 
trolled by apparatus entirely free from the objections which might rightly 
or wrongly be urged against some of the details of the original designs. 

“ With regard to the proposal for disposing of the water by syphons, it 
was sketched out at a few minutes’ notice at the urgent request of Colonel 
Hasted, who pressed me to design an alternative arrangement which 
would meet the objections. I never had very much faith in the plan 
and it is somewhat remarkable that this hasty and iU-considered scheme, 
which when carefully examined bristled with defects, was accepted without 
objection, while the immeasurably superior plan first proposed was 
peremptorily vetoed.” 

The floor of the tunnel or culvert, it may be added, was not rock but 
on account of structural drawbacks was built up level with ordinary 
concrete, which was also the material of the sides and arch. When the 
water was shut off, not a stone was displaced. To prevent sliding’of 
the plugging and to give a better outfall, the culvert was given a curve 
in plan, and key-ways were left in the side walls, closed temporarily 
with stone laid in perished lime, and plastered. These were also 
undisturbed, 


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II.] 


PERltAK PROJECT. 


87 


To return to the narrative, any doubts that existed as to the possible 
unpopularity of the works on account of the epidemic referred to on page 
84 were at once set at rest during July by the influx of a larger amount 
of labour than usual, and work at once proceeded briskly. A new 
carnp had already been built on the south side of the river and a foot 
bridge was in course of construction. In August the river was raised 
from the vents at + 48 to + 54, and an unsuccessful attempt made to 
raise it further to + 60, which was however satisfactorily accomplished 
in September. The water was then allowed to flow through the culvert 
just described and was controlled by the specially designed sluice of 
which a plan is given (see X), but the absorbing capacity of the lake 
had now become so large that there was seldom a formidable rise in 
the water level and the sluice was hardly required. The raising of the 
dam was continued over the culvert and the concrete throughout the 
whole length maintained at a uniform level thenceforward. With the 
employment of this culvert all anxieties on account of water ceased and 
the progress on the dam was rapid, uniform and uneventful. During 
the season (1894-95) the following quantities were put in :— 

CUBIC FEET. 


Concrete .. .. .. .. 1,028,404 

Eubble masonry .. .. .. .. 524,252 


Total .. 1,552,650 


the highest aggregate in one month being 198,681 cubic feet in Nov¬ 
ember 1894. During the season the dam was raised 47 feet, viz., from 
4- 68 to + 115. The bed of the cutting leading to the watershed tunnel 
being at + 115, and the front wall of the dam at -}- 118, it was now 
possible to turn water into the plains of Madura after closing the culvert 
at + 60 and allowing the lake to rise. At the end of March it therefore 
only remained to block the culvert, which during this month was left 
completely open so as to run the lake as low as possible. On tho 2nd 
April morning, the gauge reading 63, the W.I. semi-circular shutter of 
17 feet diameter, used on several similar occasions, was lowered by 
shear-legs on to a semi-circular masonry seating previously prepared in 
front of the vent. A pulsometer was then dropped into a sump in the 
masonry floor within the shutter, and with the help of a little caulking 






88 


HISTOEY OF THE 


[chap. 


between the edges of the shutter and the sides of the vent the leakage 
was reduced in three hours to practically nil. The shutter being capable 
of being bolted up to 20 feet height at an hour’s notice the culvert was 
now safe from inundation provided the pump did not break down or the 
lake rise more than 17 feet. As an additional precaution against these 
remote contingencies tJie vent was closed behind the iron shutter by 
3-inch planks carefully caulked. At 11 a.m. the masons were set to 
work to build up the culvert with rubble in mortar, working day and 
night by electric light. In the following ten days the lake level had 
risen less than 1 foot; the blocking had been completed to a thickness 
of 25 feet, and though it was afterwards continued slowly the operation 
was to all intents and purposes complete, and the coping stone set to an 
unprecedently successful season’s work. A good deal of interest at the 
end was lost owing to the abnormally small discharge of the river, due 
to the unexampled drought of the previous four months. 

By July 1895 the water in the lake rose to +110 and was passed 
for the time being through vents previously built across the depression 
on the left flank. During the remainder of the year the dam progressed 
rapidly towards completion and in October the works were formally 
opened by His Excellency Lord Wenlock, g.c.i.e., g.c.s.i., who laid a 
stone on the top of the dam in the presence of a distinguished assemblage 
to commemorate the occasion, the level being 129 feet higher than a 
similar stone laid by him at his last visit exactly three years before. 
Little then remained to do but the parapet walls, which were finished in 
December. A culvert had been left on the right flank at + 112, which 
was closed without difficulty in the following month, and the finishing 
touch was put by a pedestal at the north end, on the top of which 
are stones recording the names of the officers and upper subordinates who 
took part in the work. This closes the account of the construction of the 
Periydr Dam, a work unique in the history of engineering—built amidst 
unprecedented difficulties across a turbulent river, whose highest flood 
discharge exceeded that of the Thames at Windsor fifteen times and was 
equal to half the average flow of Niagara : impounding a lake covering 
more than 8,000 acres and with a maximum possible depth of 170 feet. 

Large dams such as these are never, it may be said, free from leakage, 
and comparatively the Periyar Dam is remarkably watertight. A 
certain amount of sweating and a few actual leaks there are, but the exact 
amount of water that passes through them it has not yet been possible 


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II.] 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


89 


to determine. The excavation for the foundation on both flanks was 
sometimes as much as 60 feet deep, and the sides have naturally in the 
course of time fallen in on the toe of the dam. The soil is never entirely 
free from moisture and the subsoil drainage flows down the rear toe of 
the dam, particularly on the left flank, and mingles with the real leak¬ 
age. The total thus combined was in March 1896 gauged to be 0T8 
cubic feet per second with the water level + 116 in the lake. In July 
of the same year with the water-level -f 142 the measurement was 0-75 
cubic feet per second, and in September 0-49 cubic feet per second with 
the same water-level. It clearly cannot be the case that the actual leak¬ 
age decreased from 0‘75 to 0*49 cubic feet per second in two months and 
the only possible inference is that the difference was due to the decrease 
in rainfall, June and July being specially wet months. August and 
September, though drier, are not free from rain, and a considerable 
quantity of water remains in the soil from previous rainfall, so that a 
further inference may be made that of the 0*49 cubic feet per , second 
measured in September a certain proportion is due to subsoil drainage. 
March, on the other hand, is a very dry month and succeeds other dry 
months, so that the subsoil water is then very httle ; but though the 
measurement in that month was but 0*18 cubic feet per second the lake 
level was then at its lowest and the leakage would doubtless increase 
somewhat with a greater depth of water. On the whole, therefore, it is 
probable that the actual leakage through the dam varies between one- 
seventh and one-third of a cubic foot per second according to the level 
of the lake water, and a confirmation of this view is furnished by a sub¬ 
sequent measurement in February 1897, with W.L. -f 130, which gave 
0*26 cubic feet per second as the total leakage. 

This amount is, of course, quite insignificant over an area of some 
72,000 square feet, and would be so were it considerably more. The 
danger of such leakage is that it may carry out lime with it and gradu¬ 
ally create a hollow in the interior of the dam. Analyses of the leakage 
water, in the hope of gauging the amount of lime in it, are from the 
circumstances very misleading. It is impossible to tell at whak,point 
of the front of the dam any particular leak begins and what course it 
follows. If it begins low down it probably carries in lime with it, since 
at the foot of the front of the dam there is a great accumulation of mortar 
fallen in the course of construction. The whole of the front and rear.of 
the dam are also pointed and hme might easily be abstracted from the 
pointing. The course followed makes a large difference in determining- 


HISTOEY OF THE 


[chap. 


% 

the effect on the interior of the dam, since what would be a large 
amount abstracted in a short straight course becomes comparatively 
insignificant if the course is circuitous and long. In the actual bottling 
of samples for analysis also many chances of error occur, which, though 
small in each sample, become large when the amount is multiplied by 
minutes, hours, days and years. Nothing but a very large number of 
samples taken daily for a long period from carefully isolated leaks by 
an educated and intelligent operator could convey even an approximation 
to the truth, and even so the lowest sample would be more likely to be 
correct than the average. A truer and more satisfactory consideration 
is that all large dams leak, very nearly all leak more than the Periy^r 
Dam, and no visible harm happens to them in consequence. 

Left Bank Extension. 

It will be seen from the cross section of the Periyfir Valley that 
there existed on the left flank a depression, the lowest surface level of 
which was 116 feet above datum. This gap it was necessary to close, 
and on the supposition (supported by trial pits) that solid rock would 
be met throughout a little more than 20 feet below ground it was origin¬ 
ally intended to build a dam across it to a level of + 144 and to use it 
as an escape for surplus water, a smaller wall below providing a water- 
cushion for the overflow. Compared with the main dam the total 
height (about 40 feet) was insignificant and it did not enter into the 
range of practical consideration, till the main dam should reach the 
level of + 100 or thereabouts. Shortly before this level was reached a 
beginning was made on the excavation for foundations in the depression, 
and the first results were very favourable, since on the right or northern 
flank and across the centre rock was exposed at a depth of from 12 to 20 
feet below the surface of the ground. On the left or southern side 
however the rock began to dip and the excavation was found to consist 
at 20 feet depth of a slushy water-logged blue clay, mixed with large 
and small boulders. The sides slipped constantly on exposure to the 
air during wet weather. It was hoped that a continuance of fine 
weather would effect an improvement, but the exposed surfaces dried 
and cracked and fell down in large masses filling the bottom of the 
formdation trench and leaving behind them the same water-logged clay. 
The sides of the excavation were thereupon stepped back to 1| to 1, 
necessitating a large extra quantity of earthwork ; but no doubt was 


EPT BANK EXTENSION, FROM UP STREAM. 























II.] 


PflEIYiu PROJECT. 


91 


felt but that by perseverance rock would eventually be reached. The 
excavation proceeded slowly from January 1894 to September 1894, and 
in the latter month it was reported that it would in the ordinary course 
be completed about November, but could without difficulty be pushed to 
completion in a few w'eeks, should unexpectedly rapid progress on the 
main dam render this advisable. Eock had by this time been found 
at the bottom of the scarp or dip, and it was thought to be certain to 
slope upwards as it was follow'ed in the southerly direction. In the next 
month October, it was reported that the lie of the bed rock was not so 
favourable as it promised to be, but there was no reason to apprehend 
any serious difficulty. Eock still trending downwards labour was in¬ 
creased and concentrated on the left flank, until the maximum depth 
of the excavation exceeded 60 feet, and the lie was admitted to be very 
unpromising and considerable difficulty was apprehended in the last 
few feet. The section w'as so different from that which had been 
exposed in every other case that it was regarded as a piece of noncon- 
formable stuff that must soon come to an end, the more so that there 
W'as no definite evidence to denote a landslip, and the conformation of 
the immediately adjoining ridges made it appear most improbable that 
there could bo much more downward trend. Work proceeded with 
groat trouble from slips till March 1895, wffien it beeamo evident that 
rock would not at any rate be reached during that month. The main 
dam was now rapidly approaching the level of + 115, and it would bo 
necessary in the next monsoon to expect the rise of the lake to a similar 
level. It was, therefore, decided to isolate the left flank by a protective 
combination of masonry and earthwork, with vents to pass the water 
when the lake rose ; but it was still hardly doubted that before July 
rock would be found and masonry built in. 

In April 1895 the Chief Engineer visited the works and took a moro 
unfavourable view as to the prospects of rock being reached within a 
reasonable time and reasonable expense. lie, therefore, decided on. a 
change in the plan of construction, which is detailed in the follow¬ 
ing note on the subject, which though it involves a small amount of 
repetition is here extracted in full, in order to give a clear account of 
the situation: — 

“ On each bank of the river the main dam abuts upon a low hill, wdiich 
on the side furthest from the river falls to a short saddle, from wdience small 
tributary streams run in each direction joining the main river above and 


92 


HISTORY OP THE 


[chap. 


below tbe dam ; and tlie ground then rises to a high range of hills several 
hundreds of feet above the river bed. The formation is precisely the same 
on both banks except that on the right bank the small hill and the saddle 
between it and the main range are higher than on the left. It was intended 
to use both these saddles as escape weirs, that on the right bank being cut 
down and that on the left built up to the required level. 

“ On both banks of the river and on the right bank saddle the anticipa¬ 
tions based on the original surveys were fairly well realised, rock being 
found at varying, but on the whole moderate depths below the surface soil, 
and there was every reason to believe, that similar conditions would obtain on 
the left bank saddle. This expectation was realised at first, the excavations 
showing rock at about the depth expected all along the south slope of the 
hill on which the left flank of the dam rests down to the saddle itself on 
which rock was found for some distance at a level of 104 feet above datum, 
exactly the level shown in the sections attached to the original estimates. 
Here, however, the agreement between expectations and results ends; 
instead of rising towards the hill on the south the rock falls somewhat 
abruptly. 

“ The continuation of the excavation beyond this point has been a matter 
of some difficulty, as the hill above is so steep that the earth is constantly 
slipping and we have had to do an amount of excavation out of all propor¬ 
tion to the area of rock exposed. The latter has been followed down to a 
level of about -h 95, and it is by no means certain that we have yet got to 
the bottom of the* dip, while it is quite certain from the excavations that 
have been made higher up the hill that a very heavy amount of earthwork 
has'yet to be done before there is the least chance of finding rock at the 
level required for a continuous masonry dam across the valley. Ihe 
accompanying plan and sections (Plate XI) show the features of the 
ground and the position of the rock as far as we have yet discovered it; the 
latter is shown by the coloured portion on the section, while the fine dotted 
line shows the position in which it was expected to lie. 

“ It is by no means certain what is the cause of this peculiar formation ; 
it may be due simply to a fault in the rock, and this was the view to which 
I was for some time inclined. If this is so, the fault is a very deep one, 
and we do not know that we have yet got to the bottom of it. I am how¬ 
ever now inclined to the belief that there is no fault at all, but that the 
line on which we have been excavating is not the true (or rather the 
original) dividing line between the tributary streams, the spur on which we 
have been working being caused by a landslijp. A little to the west of this 
spur there is a second one which is certainly due to this cause ; further 
west there is still a third spur along which (about on the line XY on the 
plan) an excava€on_ has been made which discloses rock at a moderate 



KTit-nfi..,., 

- W> . ■ ■. .1 




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_ „ 

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“..-'"‘TV' ^ - 'h. ^VliitfSlSKi I'v' 





X 


T • 






I 

a 



o. 

<0 

0 . 

o 

O 














































DAM AND LEFT BANK EXTENSION, FROM UP STREAM. 

















dr 



PEEIYAR PROJECT. 


63 


II.] 


depth right across the bottom of the valley, its level at the lowest point 
being about + 88 ; the rock has been followed on the southern side of the 
valley up to about + 120, at which point there is a somewhat extensive 
faidt, and it has not been considered advisable to follow the investigation 
further, as it is clear that nothing would be gained by following this line. 

I am inclined to think that the original dividing ridge between the two 
tributar}’^ sti'eams was somewhere about this line, the contours running 
somewhat as shown by the tracing attached to the plan, and that the 
present formation is due to an extensive slip from the hill above which has 
blocked the original eastern valley and diverted a portion of its waters to 
the west. This view is confirmed in some measure by the existence of a 
rather extensive swamp round the point A on the plan. Jf this view is 
correct, the rock on the line of the present main dam must descend to some¬ 
where below -f 80 and probably runs somewhat as shown by the thick dotted 
line on the section. In this case the most favourable line for a dam to be 
founded on rock throughout would be about XY, but even if the fault 
previously mentioned is not an extensive one, the cost of a dam entirely of 
masonry on this line would probably not be less than Es. 2,50,000 and 
might be a good deal more. 

“It is therefore proposed to take advantage of the favourable position of 
the rock on the northern portion of the original line to build on this as far 
as it goes, and at the point where it begins to fall to construct a massive 
wing wall which will support an earthen bank connecting the masonry 
dam with the hill beyond. The front portion of the wing wall is now 
under construction, and before the water rises sufficiently to pass over the 
saddle will be completed to a level of -f 125, which is sufficient to prevent 
the flank being turned as long as the masonry portion of the dam remains 
at its present level. Next season the wing wall and the earthen bank 
behind it will be raised in due proportion with the remainder of the work. 
The masonry wall has been carried right across the valley to a height of -f 
116 (2 feet below the main dam) with three vents 10 feet wide near the 
southern end, their sills being at -j- 110; these will pass the ordinary 
discharge of the river leaving the main wall for the passage of high floods ; 
the work on the main dam will thus proceed without interruption, the left 
bank dam being raised from time to time as may be desirable. It may be 
noted here that the front wing wmll runs into natural ground at a level of 
4- 135, so that' the embankment is only exposed to water above this level, 
and the maximum flood level being + 155 (or probably a couple of feet 
less) the greatest depth of water against the bank is only 20 feet.^ 

* Supposing that no water leaks through or round the end of the wing wall at a 
lower level. 




94 


HISTORY OF THE 


'[chap. 


“ As far as I can judge at present the arrangement contemplated will cost 
little if anything more than the original proposals, while it is entirely free 
from any element of risk or of difficulty requiring more than ordinary 
precautions. It would have been slightly cheaper to hare closed the valley 
throughout with an earthen bank, and had the position of the rock been 
known sooner it might have been worth while to adopt this course, but as 
matters are now it will be a great convenience to use this saddle as a tem¬ 
porary escape during the first part of next season, and it would not be worth 
while to give up tliis convenience except for a much greater saving than is 
likely to be effected. This plan would have had the disadvantage of not 
permitting the saddle in question to be used as a permanent supplemental 
escape ; the disadvantage is not a very serious one but has a certain 
amount of weight.” 

(In this plan the wings wore at once begun and a commencement 
made in refilling the excavation. Alinormally heavy Irain early in 
June flooded the foundation trench before it could l:)e refilled with dry 
earth, a difficult process in any case on account of the leakage from the 
sides. The water was displaced by throwing in earth in the deepest 
part up to its original ground level, which allowed the rain to run off, 
but there were still numerous springs from the water-logged clay which 
continued running even when covered with earth. These were, therefore, 
led into drains of hand-packed stone and conducted through the 
commencement of the rear wing wall into two 10-inch wrouglit-iron 
pipes. When the weather became drier the drains were covered 
with sacking and the earthwork proceeded in layers in the usual 
manner. 

The water in the lake rose to the level of the vents at -f- 110 early 
in July and stopped work for the time being, but as soon as the force 
of the monsoon diminished towards the end of August the vents were 
closed without difficulty and work was resumed. An examination of 
the foundations of the rear wing then disclosed that the fault previously 
described, which had put a stop to the southerly extension of the 
masonry body wall of this dam, curved round in a north-westerly 
direction instead of running due west, and therefore intercepted the 
line of the intended wing. This compelled the abandonment of the idea 
of using this portion of the work as a permanent escape, for though the 
W'all itself was on perfectly sound rock the fault w^as so close to its foot 
that it was not safe to allow water to fall on it from a height of 40 feet 
or more. It became therefore unnecessary to build the rear wdng wall 


right bank escape 





































II.] 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


95 


to the earthern bank at the south end aad the b^'.uk was allowed to 
assume its natural slope in rear. In front, above the wing, the bank 
was heavily revetted, and turfed in rear. The work was completed in 
February 1896, the earthern bank on the south being taken up to -f- 166 
with a top width of 12 feet. The masonry body wall was in section 
and structure similar to the main dam, but the top of the parapet was 
taken up to + 160. 


Bight Bank Escape. 

In chapter I, reference is made to the two permanent escapes 
which it was proposed to construct, both with a crest level of + 144. 
It has already been described how it became necessary to completely 
fill the saddle on the left flank and transform it into a dam, thus 
abandoning it as an escape. The saddle on the right flank alone 
remained, which was cut down to the proposed level for a length of 
420 feet, thus diminishing the available length from 900 feet to 420 
feet. It was impracticable to materially extend this length, since on 
the south the rock dipped below the -j- 144 level, while on the north 
the ground rose rapidly and necessitated an inordinate depth of cutting. 
An extension to the south would have involved massive and expensive 
wings and would moreover have tended to direct the surplus flow 
towards the rear toe of the main dam. A northern extension mio-ht 

o 

have served as a quarry, but the rock was very deeply overlaid with 
earth which would have cost large sums to remove, wdiile there w^ero 
many more favourable situations for procuring stone. 

The length provided however (420 feet} is by calculation just 
sufficient to prevent the main dam parapets from ever being topped. 
During the construction of the works the highest flood gauged 30,000 
cubic feet per second, and Table V gives the quantities observed 
during the investigation from 1869—1873 inclusive. It will be noticed 
that one of these floods very far transcended all the others and there is 
evidence that no flood approaching it in magnitude can have taken place 
for fifty years at least. This flood, amounting to 127,000 cubic feet a 
second at its maximum, has been taken as the greatest for which it was 
necessary to provide. The duration and rise of this flood were observed 
when it occurred and are detailed in the table below, which shows the 
proportionate rise of the lake during its continuance :— 


96 


HISTOEY OF THE 


[chap 


Level of lake 
surface. 

Discharge from 
lake. 

Discharge of river. 

Stored in lake. 

Capacity of lake. 

Time in filling. 

Total duration. 

Tunnel. 

Escape. 

Total. 

Feet above 
datum. 

Millions of cubic feet per 
hour. 

Millions of cubic 
feet. 

HourSi 

Hours. 

144-145 

6 

2 

8 

130 

122 

280 

2-27 


145-146 

6 

7 

13 

130 

117 

285 

2-44 


146-147 

6 

14 

20 

130 

110 

289 

1-79 










6-50 





209 

189 


•48 


147-148 

6 

22 

28 

• • • 

181 

294 

•52 









-;- 

1-00 





243 

215 

... 

•93 


148-149 

6 

32 

38 

• • • 

205 

298 

•07 









--- 

1-00 





272 

234 

... 

100 









. 

l-OO 





294 

256 


. -19 


149-150 

6 

44 

50 

• • • 

244 

300 

•81 










1-00 





291 

241 

• • • 

•42 


150-151 

6 

56 

62 

, , 

229 

306 

•58 










1-00 





251 

189 

... 

•90 


151-152 

6 

70 

76 

, , 

175 

310 

•10 










1-00 





200 

124 

... 

I'OO 










100 





153 

77 


100 



- 







1-00 





118 

42 


1-00 










1-00 





105 

29 

... 

1-00 










1-00 





118 

42 

# • • 

•47 


152-153 

6 

84 

90 

• *« 

28 

315 

•53 










1-00 





315 

225 

• • • 

1-33 


153-154 

6 

100 

106 

• •• 

209 

320 

1*53 

{ 

154-155 

6 

116 

122 

• •• 

193 

325 

•64 










3 50 





531 

409 

... 

•49 


155-156 

6 

132 

138 

• . . 

393 

330 

•51 










1-00 





516 

378 

... 

•34 


156-157 

6 

150 

156 

r*» 

360 

335 

•66 










100 





457 

301 

• • • 

•32 


157-158 

6 

169 

175 

• •• 

282 

340 

•68 










100 





309 

' 134 

• •. 

1-00 

1-00 





150 

-25 

Palls. 





































































RIGHT BANK BSCAPE. 
























I 








I..] 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


97 


Assuming tlie most unfavourable conditions, viz., that the maximum 
flood began when the lake was already full, it will be seen that the water 
ceases to rise just before the level of the top of the parapets of the main 
dam is reached, that is at a little below + 158 ; and even if the flood 
attained 9,000 cubic feet a second more, an almost impossible apprehen¬ 
sion, the dam would still not be topped by more than a foot, which 
would be most unlikely to cause any appreciable damage, and certainly 
no danger. 

The actual formation of the escape needs little description. A gullet 
was first driven through it from east to west in order to allow a passage 
for a tramway and for the road from Tekadi to the cooly-lines and 
bazaar. This gave six faces to work at, but as the stone was all required 
for the main dam and there was but little storage room progress was 
restrained to the requirements of the dam. The rock turned out to be 
more than originally anticipated, as shown on the sections, Plate VIII, 
but there were no hindrances except occasional slips on the north face 
where the scarp was very high. The work was finished by the end of 
1894, the total quantities removed being— 

CUBIC PEET. 


Earth and soft rock .. . 9,795,630 

Eock .2,215,508 


The principal explosive used was gelignite, and as it was found 
economical to blow the stone small enough to be easily handled and to 
be fed into the stone-breakers, the average outturn was about 85 cubic 
feet per lb. of explosive. 

Cutting and Tunnel through the Watershed. 

The passage through the watershed may be treated as including (1) 
an open cutting or approach 5,342 feet long on the south side, (2) a 
tunnel 5,704 feet long, and (3) an open cutting or debouchure 500 feet 
long on the north side. The longitudinal section is given in Plate V. 

The cutting on the south or Travancore side, which was known as 
the watershed cutting, consisted of 3,000 feet on the level, with bed at 
115 feet above datum, and 2,342 feet with a fall of 1 in 320, the bottom 
width being 21 feet throughout, the sides vertical in rock and with 
slopes of 1|- to 1 in earth. It was a straightforward if tedious piece 
of work, the principal trouble experienced being with the Mulya Panjdn, 
whose course crossed the line at several points and had to be trained and 
diverted, but which occasionally broke in and deposited a good deal of 

N 




98 


HISTOEY OP THE 


[chap. 


silt. As each section of the cutting was finished, working northwards, 
it was included in the canal, which thus eventually reached the tunnel 
entrance, which was also the terminal of the over-head wire ropeway up 
the ghaut. The excavation consisted of earth and rock. The latter 
was done throughout by hand, machine drills worked by manual labour 
having been tried at first without much success. 

The total quantities of earth and rook removed were— 

CUBIC FEET. 

Earth.2,217,120 

Eock. 633,731 

It had been intended to load the stone, as it came out, into boats 
and convey it direct to the main dam for use in the masonry. This, 
however, presupposed an easy means of transport from the commencement 
and as elsewhere related the canal was very far from fulfilling this 
condition; and the cost of transport was so great that even with 
uninterrupted water-carriage to the dam—and much more when the 
canal did not go the whole distance and was also frequently out of 
order—it was found extravagant to attempt to utilise this stone. It had, 
therefore, to be deposited on the banks, and the lift and lead, want of 
space, and extra handling added materially to the estimated cost of the 
cutting. 

It will be seen from the longitudinal section that the depth of 
cutting, and especially of rock, increased northwards, but just before 
it met the tunnel there was a dip in the rock, while the ground level 
began to rise rapidly up the hill. This dip caused some trouble, since 
the cutting was at that place nearly 50 feet deep and the sides of clay, 
which became slushy on exposure to water and slipped constantly. The 
sides were sloped to 1 to 1 but still refused to stand, so eventually a 
strong toe-wall was constructed. This also was thrust out and had to be 
replaced by one stiU more massive. 

The rates for excavation on this cutting are given in the appendix. 

The other cutting, 500 feet in length, from 0 to 20 feet in depth, was 
the outlet to the tunnel on the Madura side, and was also 21 feet in 
width with a fall of 1 in 250. It was completed before the tunnel 
proper was commenced, and consisted almost entirely of rock, of which 
158,095 cubic feet were removed. It debouched into the ravine or 
natural torrent bed by w'hich the Periydr water now finds its way into 
the Vairavandr and thence into the Suruliydr and the Vaigai. 




Photo.-Block. 


Survey of India Offices, Calcutta, 1899. 


WATERSHED CUTTING 























) 


I 

4 


\ 

I 

to 

. I 






I 


I 

( 




1 

\ 


1 


« 


j 

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I 


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t 


t 


j 


4 



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% ^ 


A 


•4 













II.] 


PEEIYAR PROJECT. 


99 


The tunnel proper has a section 12 feet wide by feet high and a 
gradient of 1 in 75. On account of the steepness of the gradient it was 
at first decided to work only from the northern or Madura side, in 
order to avoid pumping, and a road about a mile in length w'as accord¬ 
ingly made tabing off from the trunk road in the 46th mile from 
Periyakulam and leading to the low^er end of the outfall cutting. Here 
the air compressors w'ero installed and the turbine by which they were 
driven. A small reservoir had previously been made by blocking up a 
swamp which lay almost on the watershed line and received a consider¬ 
able drainage during the rains. This reservoir was bounded on one side 
by hills and on the other by the trunk road which ran across the 
natural 'drainage line on swampy ground and served as a bank. At a 
later period, when the water in the reservoir w^as found insuSicient, the 
road was raised, but the foundation was so bad as to occasion much care 
and trouble, causing breaches more than once during heavy rain and 
sometimes serious damage. It w^as impossible therefore ever to store 
enough water in the reservoir, and as both the tunnel north end machi¬ 
nery and the wire-ropeway up the ghaut w^ere dependent on it, they were 
always obliged to stop in January at latest and sometimes earlier, while 
no water could of course be spared to keep up the canal in the dry 
weather. 

From the reservoir a channel, nearly two miles long, was led to the 
turbine, partly in an existing channel, but mostly new, either in open 
cutting along the sides of the hills, or (wFere the lie of the ground w'as 
very steep and across the numerous small ravines) in a w'ooden flume 
supported on piles. This channel also gave considerable trouble. The 
flume w^as at first made much too slight, and on account of the paucity 
of labour and the steepness of the hill sides, the cutting w'as not every¬ 
where taken deep enough into the hill. The bridges across the ravines 
were also insufficiently strong. It served how'ever for the time being to 
take water to the turbine, and the machinery, in which several defects 
were found, w-as tried and adjusted, and some progress made with the 
tunnel while the defects in the channel w^ere being remedied. The reser¬ 
voir and turbine channel cost in all over Es. 25,000, excluding ordinary 
maintenance. 

The penstock and strainer w^ero built immediately over the turbine, 
W'hich received the water through 10-inch wrought iron lap-welded 
pipes, with flanged joints, bolted together with India-rubber w'ashers. 
The total available fall was 157| feet. The turbine was of the horizontal 


100 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


radial flow type, to developo according to specification 50 H.P., bnt 
owing to a mistaken system of lubrication and careless setting of the 
guide blades and buckets the power was never obtained. The compressors 
consisted of two 16-inch double acting cylinders fitted with inlet and 
outlet valves at each end, with pistons of 24-inch stroke, driven off two 
cranks at an angle of 90° on the same axle. The pulley was very large 
and heavy, to act as a fly-wheel, and was driven by spur-gearing by 
means of a counter-shaft, with a belt from the turbine shaft. The 
cylinders were water-j acketed. The air was discharged into two receivers, 
the specified pressure being 45 lb., but it was never maintained con¬ 
tinuously at much more than 30 lb. with all the piston-duty, and if all 
the drills were working at the face one set of valves was generally 
thrown out. 

The compressed air was led to the face in 4-inch wrought-iron 
flanged pipes, bolted together with India-rubber washers, and laid in the 
side drain, in which a little water was always running. The result was 
a distinct drop in pressure at the face, but the atmosphere in the tunnel 
was kept cooler. The air was distributed to the drills by flexible pipes 
from the end of the common air pipe. The drilling machines were origi¬ 
nally mounted on wheeled carriages, but these were quickly discarded, 
one trolly alone being kept to run the machines in and out. During 
drilling the stretcher-bars were wedged against the roof and the floor and 
did not need to be moved. The drill-pistons wore, as usual, carried on 
cradles traversing on the stretcher-bars and the drills used were from 21 
inches downwards, with taper attachment, and bits varying according 
to circumstances. The specification was that the plant should be capable 
of drilling holes sufficient to take out 7 feet length over the whole 
area of 12 feet by feet in a 9-hours day, but owing to the insufficiency 
of the turbine this quantity was never reached, a good day averaging 4 
.to 5 feet. 

The tunnel was throughout in granite, grey, blue or red, the latter 
being particularly tough to drill, while all were hard, but blew well. 
After due experiment the best explosive was found to be blasting gelatine 
and this alone was used. Electrical firing was at first tried and gave good 
results, but was uncertain ; and in case of a misfire the time lost in going 
over the connections upset the whole arrangement of shifts. Accordingly 
Beckford’s instantaneous fuse was thenceforward always employed. 

x\.ll the holes were drilled in one shift, about nine hours being required 
if the machinery was working smoothly. 


n,] 


PEKIYAR PROJECT. 


101 


They were begun with the 2|-inch drill and finished generally with 
a 2-inch, and the machines were then run back about 1,000 feet. The 
holes marked 



1, 2, 3, 4, constituted the centre cut and were from 6 to 7 feet long, con¬ 
verging towards the centre of the section. Five pounds of gelatine, 
rammed in with a wooden rammer, and well-tamped with dry clay, was 
the charge for each of these holes and they were fired first and simul¬ 
taneously. Next the holes 5 to 25 in number. 





at the top and round the centre cut were fired ; then the side holes and 
lastly the bottom holes, the two 



latter averaging together about 20 in number. The charge for each hole 
varied according to the character of the rock and the condition in which 
previous blasts had left the face, but generally from 40 to 50 lb. of 
gelatine was used beside the centre cut. It was most essential that the 
blast should not be insufficient, since that entailed bringing in the drills 
again and upset the rotation of shifts. The side, top and bottom holes, 
were drilled diverging slightly outwards, so as to ensure their taking out 
the whole section, and the section as completed is actually about 6 inches 













102 


HISTOEY OE* THE 


[CHAE. 


larger in each dimension than designed. The time taken in firing was 
generally about 3 hours, a certain amount of spoil having always to be 
cleared before the bottom holes could be fired. 

Eemoving the spoil occupied about 12 hours, and as it was advan¬ 
tageous to have day light at the tip, the drilling was always done at 
night. A single line of feet gauge, with crossings and sidings, was 
laid as the tunnel advanced, with iron sleepers on a bed of ballast. 
From 6 to 20 wagons of half a cubic yard capacity, and from 25 to 80 
men, were required according to the lead, the wagons running out by 
gravitation and being drawn up in trains of four by ponies. The stone 
had to be blown very small at the face, as the coolies were quite unequal 
to handling anything heavy. At the face two men were needed for each 
drill, and two blacksmiths and a fitter were kept constantly employed. 
For all in the tunnel a shift was 8 hours and overtime was paid for at 
the daily rate. Outside the tu nn el a shift was 9 hours. 

Yentilation was effected by an exhaust fan with a capacity of 1,000 
cubic feet per minute situated close to the mouth of the tunnel and 
driven by a 6 H.P. turbine on a fall of 120 feet of the same type as 
the compressor turbine. The flue was made of 1-inch planking 3 feet 
square plastered with clay at the joints, over which battens were nailed. 
There was a delay of about 15 minutes after each blast before the 
atmosphere became bearable. During drilling the exhaust from the 
drill-cylinders kept the air at the face fairly pure and the fan was not 
always required. 

The preliminary work, construction of road, reservoir, turbine channel, 
installation of machinery, occupied till October 1889, by which time the 
open cutting at the north end was finished and a few feet of the tunnel 
proper had been driven by hand. The alignment on the ground had also 
been completed, first roughly by a chain and compass survey taken round 
by the road, then more accurately from repeated observations from marks 
on the crests of the ridges with an omnimeter. This enabled a back 
sight of 120 feet in length to be obtained by fixing points over the 
tunnel exit and in the outfall cutting, the error of which could not be 
very largo and was at any rate parallel to the true line. Afterwards, 
when the line from ridge to ridge had been cleared of jungle, it was 
accurately measured on the groimd and checked, but the error was infini¬ 
tesimal. The lining in the tunnel itself was continued by boning rods 
hung from the roof and checked from time to time with lights and a theo¬ 
dolite. To anticipate slightly, the deviation in the horizontal plane 
was on completion found to be less than 2 inches and in the vertical 


11.] 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


103 


plane nothing. The exact length was 5,704 feet. In November 1889 
drilling by machinery at the 'north end was begun and a fairly steady 
progress of about 4 feet per working day maintained. This rate could 
not be increased and by April 1891 the total advance was only 1,008 feet 
and it had already been determined to employ other means to accelerate 
it. A shaft, known as No. II shaft, was therefore sunk on the line at 
4,146| feet from the north end and 1,557^ feet from the south end. 
This shaft measured 14 feet by 7 feet, and was 109 feet deep. A second¬ 
hand steam plant was purchased and erected near the shaft consisting of 
3 Boot’s boilers 15 H.P., with a horizontal engine and compressor, and a 
3|-ineh rock-boring machine. A winding-engine and pump for the 
boilers were also fitted up and these had shortly to be supplemented by 
a pump in the shaft and a winch and cable for hauling loaded trucks on 
the upgrade. In order to take out the fuU section drills considerably 
larger than the plant was designed for were used, and a large addition 
to the boiler-power was therefore required and was supplied by portable 
engines which were at hand on the works. Yentilation was effected by a 
diaphragm down the shaft connected at one end to a flue and at the 
other to the fire-boxes of the boilers, and by running the compressors 
with the drills detached after blasting. This plant began working both 
southwards and northwards in alternate shifts, the number of men for 
removal of spoil being between 30 and 50 ; and this was continued till 
April 1893, when on account of the difiiculty of pumping work on the 
north face was stopped. Up to this time the advance was about 2 feet 
a working day on each face from the shaft, and the total advance on all 
faces combined was 3,600 feet. From this time work at No. II shaft 
was confined to the south face until it was nearly through in November 
1893, when it was stopped and work on the north face resumed until 
February 1894, after which the work was completed from the north end 
alone. A partition* was left at the south face on No. II shaft until 
work northwards was stopped, in order to prevent an inflow from the 
Muliya Panjdn, and this was left until February 1894. The other two 
faces met accurately in October 1894. 

The rock was in places seamed with small fissures, which admitted a 
little water, but the quantity decreased always after running for a short 
time. The total quantity of water was never serious, and for a consider¬ 
able proportion of its length the tunnel was quite dry. 

The discharge of the tunnel is a difficult thing to calculate, since 
with the steep gradient and rough sides there must be a loss by eddies 


104 


HISTOEY OP THE 


[chap. 


and skin friction whicli can only be dimly pictured. When the head 
at the entrance is great an additional effect of turbulence must be 
produced. It is probable that the maximum discharge is obtained when 
the tunnel is not quite full, since there is then a surface fall independent 
of friction against the roof. The estimated discharge was 1,600 cubic 
feet a second, but it appears that this is somewhat over the mark. A 
measuring weir, with a sluice in it, has been built across the open out¬ 
fall cutting, which has the result of submerging the mouth of the tunnel 
and possibly compresses air inside. Many observations at the weir have 
been made, but it is only a degree more capable of gauging than the 
tunnel itself by reason of its conduct being visible. The approach to it 
not being straight the water is higher at one end than the other, and it 
is so near the tunnel mouth and the cutting is so narrow that the depth 
on the crest and the velocity of approach are almost impossible to deter¬ 
mine exactly. The following table has however been compiled according 
to the depth of water on the gauge at the weir and it is at present 
accepted as the discharge from the lake :— 


Depth on weir. 
FEET. 

Dischar 
C. FT. A i 

0-00 

0 

0-25 

26 

0-50 

73 

0-75 

133 

1-00 

207 

1-25 

288 

1-50 

371 

1-75 

472 

2-00 

576 

2-25 

683 

2-50 

797 

2-75 

915 

3-00 

1,041 

3-25 

1,167 

3-50 

1,301 

3-75 

1,437 

400 

1,576 

4-25 

1,720 

4-50 

1,866 

4-75 

2,015 

5-00 

2,166 


Eetnarks. 


To this must be added a quantity varying 
from 531 cubic feet a second to 0, according 
as the sluice in the weir is full open or 
partly open or closed. 

With no water on crest and vent full open 
the discharge is 392 cubic feet a second. 

If water is below crest of weir, the discharge 
varies between: (1) at 0-25 feet below 
crest 55 to 382 cubic feet a second, (2) 4-00 
feet below crest 38 to 226 cubic feet a 
second, according as the sluice is full open 
or partly open or closed. 


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Reg: No. 4563 

Cooles. 410 Photo-Print.. Survey Offloe. Madras. 

1898 














































VERTICAL SECTION OF 
SLUICE WELL 


SKETCH 2 



Ree: No. 4582 
CoDie« 410 


ROCK 


Phot^PrInt« Survey Office, Madras 

1898 
















































ENTRANCE TO TUNNEL. 






























1 





11.] 


PEEIYAR PROJECT. 


105 


The sluice-gates at the head of the tunnel, as originally designed, 
were to have been similar to those in the main dam escape culvert, 
described on page 24. The design was, however, entirely altered and 
the gates as actually constructed were according to Plate VI. The 
tunnel at the head, after a few feet of straight, divides into two semi¬ 
circular arms of l5 feet radius, meeting in a chamber from which the 
tunnel proper continues in a single straight line. At the lower ends of 
each of the two arms are two vents, one above the other. The upper 
vents, 10 feet by 6 feet, are for the normal discharge. The lower vents, 
10 feet by 4 feet, and arched over, were designed to ensure a continuous 
discharge of 500 cubic feet a second, in view of the necessity of that 
amount being supplied permanently for power purposes, and in case 
repairs or inspection of the gates of the upper vents should be required. 
The upper or main shutters are connected and worked simultaneously 
by one gearing. Each shutter is of |-inch plate, and the two shutters 
are tied together by 15 flanged W.I. 4-inch pipes of metal, bolted 
through the shutter plate to bearing plates symmetrically placed. The 
shutters do not fit close to the vent, the intervening space being closed 
by angle-irons on the shutters at top and bottom and flanged rails, serv¬ 
ing as guides, fixed in concrete at the sides; and the rails are strutted 
apart by 4-inch pipes. Each gate is suspended by a 1-inch wire rope 
from a pulley on a cross head in the sluice house. The cross-head is 
hung from the roof of the house and raised or lowered by tackle from 
two winches. The arrangement, it will be seen, gives great flexibility. 

The lower vents are controlled by shutters, each worked by a screw 
of 2j inches diameter passing through a 4-inch pipe passing down a 
shaft in the rock. They have no guides. 

The above arrangements were so unsuccessful that it has not been 
thought necessary to give further details of them than the accompany¬ 
ing sketch. 

It was found in practice that the actual result of suspending the 
shutter by a rope over a loose pulley was that if one face of the shutter 
met with an obstruction and stuck the shutter at once got askew and 
jammed. The violent surging of the water had a similar effect, either 
end of the shutter swaying up and down alternately. To make the 
shutter work at all, it was found necessary to wedge the pulley and fix 
it, and it was difficult and awkward to work the two independent winches 
together. When the shutter was examined it was found that it had 
been considerably damaged by the vibration. Several of the lower 


106 


HISTOEY OF THE 


[chap. 


struts were broken, and most of the others were loosened. The lower 
shutters were found to get bedded in the sand brought into the tunnel 
by the water, so as to be almost immovable and the single screw shaft 
to each shutter was found to be insufficient to preveut jamming. 

There was also at the extreme inside end of the tunnel, before the 
commencement of the two semi-circular arms, an emergency shutter con¬ 
taining within it small pivoted valves designed to pass 500 cubic feet a 
second when the shutter was down and also to assist in raising and 
lowering it. This shutter was not however intended for ordinary use. 

It was finally decided to abandon these shutters and to substitute 
for them a Stoney’s shutter in the place of the emergency shutter. 
The design of the Stoney’s shutter is given in Plate IX. This shut¬ 
ter has not yet been erected, but the following is an extract from the 
instructions of the Chief Engineer for Irrigation, Mr. W. Hughes, in 
requesting a design from Messrs. Ransomes and Rapier :— 

“The average section of the tunnel is about 96 square feet and the 
velocity about 12 feet per second with an average depth in the reservoir 
and the shutter full open. The present opening at the head of the 
tunnel was made of its present dimensions merely to afford room for a 
large sluice gate with valves, but with the arrangement now proposed 
there is no object in having the opening much larger than the tunnel, and it 
will therefore be reduced to 12 feet by lOJ feet to soffit of arch). 

“ It would be inconvenient to have the supports of the counter¬ 
weights at any considerable height above the platform. It is therefore 
suggested that the counterweights should be designed to work in a 
trough in the masonry. 

“ In a high flood there will probably be heavy rain also on the 
Madura side of the hills and the tunnel will have to be fully closed. 
The maximum pressure on the sluice gate will, therefore, be that due to a 
head on sill of 155-00—106-50 or 48-50 feet. The maximum velocity through 
the sluice will occur when the lake is high and it is.desired to pass only a 
little water through the tunnel. In this case there will be but slight pres¬ 
sure in rear of the- gate and the maximum velocity may be taken as 
that due to a head of 45 feet. An iron sill will be necessary on this account 
and to prevent leakage as far as possible. 

“ A great part of the site of the lake was occupied by forest, and, as the 
trees and bamboos fall, a great quantity of drift of all kinds is constantly 
being carried towards the tunnel. A grating to prevent any of this 'above 


IT.] 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


107 


a certain size reacliing the sluice is required and the grating and sluice gate 
must be designed together. The lift of the shutter will be feet and the 
height of the grating at the tunnel end must be at least 12 feet. From 
experience gained at the Bhatgarh dam it is found most undesirable to have 
the grating close to a sluice opening. 

“It has been found in some sluices that the submerged iron work gets 
pitted and the friction consequently increased. For this reason it seems 
advisable that such portion of the submerged metal work as is liable to 
wear, such as the rollers and surfaces of the roller-paths, should be of non- 
corrodible metal. 

“With regard to the mechanism for actuating the shutter it may be 
stated that time is of practically no importance, and that it would be quite 
satisfactory if the mechanism is arranged so that the sluice can be raised or 
lowered an inch a minute by one man pulling about 20 lbs. to 30 lbs.” 

Messrs. Bansomes and Rapier submitted a design with the follow¬ 
ing description:— 

“The mechanism consists of the following parts:—Beginning on the 
up-stream side, there is built into a groove provided in the masonry, a cast- 
iron frame work or orifice, consisting of a sill girder, a lintel girder, and 
two jamb pieces. These castings are all bolted together at machined faces, 
BO that true and rigid work is secured; the inside edges are also planed, 
where the bottom and sides and top of the gate come in contact with them, 
thus securing a close and satisfactory fit. 

“ The side eastings extend sideways into the wall and are securely built 
into place ; to them are united by means of short lengths of steel joists, the 
roller path castings. The joists are 3 feet 8 inches long and placed about 
every 2 feet, so that the whole forms one rigid structme. The roller path 
casting has a projecting edge or ridge down its whole length. On this rests 
the actual roller path. This is of cast iron, and truly machined on its face 
and also in the groove, which fits on the ridge. 

“The width of the roller face is 14 inches, this being necessary, owing 
to the great pressure to which the sluice may be subjected. 

“ The roller path is free to ‘rock’ slightly on the ridge, so as to ensure the 
pressure of the rollers coming equally on the whole width of the roller path. 

“The main roller path casting, which is built into the wall, carries a 
strong steel shield plate to protect the rollers and path against the rush of 
water when the gate is lifted. This shield plate is easily removable for 
purposes of inspection. 

“ The gate is directly supported against the water pressure by 20 pairs 
of cast-iron rollers. The skin of the gate is of exceptional strength, being 
f-inch thick steel plate. 


108 


HISTOKY OF THE 


[chap. 

“The clear opening of the gate is 12 feet 9 inches high by 9 feet 6 
inches -wide, equal to 118J square feet; against 96 square feet, the average 
sectional area of the tunnel. 

“ The form of the gate is narrower and higher than that of the tunnel, 
hut this proportion of height to width is much more economical for heavy 
pressure sluices, as the greater height gives more length of roller path, and 
the width of the rollers, &c., can then he proportionately reduced. 

“The skin of the gate is supported by 14 steel joists, 14 inches by 6 
inches, which transmit the load to end castings which rest on the rollers. 

“ The gate is operated by a screw-lifting gear, and is also balanced to 
the extent of |- its total weight. 

“The balance weight consists of a steel tank filled with stone, and 
carried by two steel wire ropes, with a factor of safety of 10. 

“ The lifting screw is of steel and inches outside diameter, with a 
double thread, the whole 14 feet being turned in one length. 

“ On the head of the screw is keyed a massive bevel wheel which is 
worked by the winch, the ratio of gearing being 27 turns of the handle to 
one turn of the screw. This will give great ease of working and security 
against possible break-down. 

“The screw is carried throughout in brass bearings; and works in a 
brass nut of ample length and provided with an oil chamber. 

“ The nut is bolted to the head of the cast-iron ram, which transmits the 
motion to the gate. The gearing is, therefore, capable of either lifting or 
pushing. 

“ The ram is turned true and‘passes through a brass bearing at the 
lower end of the shield tube, so that the screw is protected from weather 
and dust. 

“The sluice chamber is formed by the existing masonry at the back, 
and on the other three sides by new masonry. The internal dimensions of 
the chamber are 10 feet 6 inches deep by 15 feet 6 inches wide. On the 
up-stream side a groove is provided for a temporary door ; the sides of the 
culvert converge at an angle of 1 in 4, so as to get the best efficiency from 
a given side of sluice and to so direct the stream that it does not strike the 
rollers, &c., but first touches the shield plate. 

“The thickness of the front wall is about the minimum, unless it be 
built as a regular arch, to take horizontal pressure. The coping stones round 
the top of the sluice chamber will be rebated about li inches by i inch, so 
as to form a landing for steel foot-plates. 

“ The screen is formed of l|-inch diameter bars, rivetted into frames of 
convenient width for handling. These are carried on cross joists, set in 
recesses of the side masonry.” 


THE WATER AFTER LEAVING THE TUNNEL. 













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II.] 


PERIYAE PROJECT. 


109 


As regards the use of non-corrodible metal, Messrs. Eansomes and 
Eapier were of opinion, from aotual experience in bad water, that iron 
was quite safe and much cheaper, and that the introduction of brass set 
up a galvaoic action which rapidly ate away the iron frame work. The 
sluice was therefore designed by them in steel and iron alone. 


Cost of Head Works. 

At an early stage of the works it became evident that the estimate 
for the Head works would be considerably exceeded, on account of the 
difficulties of the initial operations; but it was hoped that, these once 
overcome and labour organised, an approximation to the original rates 
might ultimately be arrived at. As time wore on this hope disappeared, 
but it was not until 1892 that the obstacles, for which there was neither 
precedent nor possible forecast, were safely passed, uniform progress 
attained, and an accurate measure of the ultimate cost rendered possible. 
In 1893, revised estimates were submitted, of which the following is a 


Main dam and escape 

culvert with 

Original. 

RS. 

Eevised. 

RS. 

turbine supply culvert 

.. 

9,59,000 

24,60,000 

Temporary dams 


15,000 

29,115 

Eight bank escape' .. 


1,55,000 

2,70,000 

Left bank extension .. 


46,000 

79,885 

Water-shed cutting .. 


1,37,000 

2,47,000 

Water-shed tunnel 


2,95,000 

4,94,000 

Buildings 


1,57,000 

3,50,000 

Maintenance .. 


50,000 

97,000 

Tools and plant 


60,000 

7,57,000 

Unforeseen works 


•. 

60,000 

Miscellaneous .. 


56,000 

1,80,000 


These excesses caused a corresponding increase in the item of estab¬ 
lishment, calculated at 23 4 per cent, upon the actual cost of works, 
though the real charge was very far below this figure. In the early 
stages of the work there was a painful deficiency of officers and subordi¬ 
nates, a mistake the avoidance of which would have saved enormous 
sums of money. 








110 


HISTOEY OF THE 


[chap. 


To escape recapitulation the subject of the cost of each work is taken 
in one piece, since the same items appear in greater or less proportion 
in many of the heads of estimate. Thus the item of petty supervision 
was largely exceeded throughout, owing to the protracted duration of 
the works, eight years instead of five, and there was also a large loss, 
distributed over all the works, upon rice imported by Government and 
sold below cost price when the price in the plains was high. The fol¬ 
lowing extract from the Chief Engineer’s note in submitting the revised 
estimates treats, in sufficient detail, such other causes as were common to 
aU the component parts:— 

“Among these causes, the principal is the in sufficiency of the rates 
allowed in the original estimates. It must be frankly admitted that these 
rates were much too low ; it was expected that the whole work would be 
done by daily labour with gangs of men carefully drilled and watched, and 
that machinery would be used to a much larger extent than has been 
found practicable. These expectations were not realised; it was found 
impossible with the staff available (and it is doubtful whether it would have 
been possible with any reasonable amount of establishment) to train and 
drill the labour in the way proposed, and it became necessary to fall back 
upon the ordinary methods of ‘ piece-work.’ Time being all-important the 
piece-workers have been practically masters of the situation and we have 
had to pay rates enormously in excess of what would have been necessary, 
if the work could have been done in a more leisurely fashion and if the 
supply of labour had been unlimited. 

“ The rates actually paid appear, and are, high, but it must be borne in 
mind that only a very insignificant fraction of the labour came from a dis¬ 
tance of less than 60 miles and most of it from distances greatly exceeding 
this amount, that each man worked on an average for certainly not more 
than eight months in the year, and that the enforced idleness caused by the 
stoppage of work during each hot weather and the loss of time involved 
in the journeys to and from the labourers’ homes had in some form or other 
to be paid for. 

“Another cause which has certainly tended towards a general increase 
of prices is the political condition under which the works have been carried 
out. This is a subject on which I wish to say as httle as possible, because 
my views are not in accordance with those of the Government of Madras, 
but it is impossible to avoid all allusion to it. When the estimates were 
prepared it was assumed, as a matter of course, that the site of the works 
and the ground in their neighbourhood would be declared British Territory 
either permanently or for so long as the works were in course of construe^ 
tion. This was not done, and without going into details of this portion of 


11.] 


PERIYAR PEOJECT. 


Ill 


the history of the works, it may be said in general terms that, for the first 
four years of their progress, there was absolutely no machinery for main¬ 
taining order or for the protection of life and projperty in the camps, except 
such irregular and extra-legal machinery as was created by the officers in 
charge ; at a later period a limited criminal ] urisdiction was ceded by the 
Government of Travancore, but the concession was so narrowed and limited 
that it was almost worthless, and even at the present time the conditions of 
life in the project camps are by no means such as should prevail among a 
community of some six thousand British subjects. What the financial effect 
of this state of things has been, it is of course, impossible to say with any 
approach to accuracy ; but it is certain that any cause which renders a work 
attractive tends to reduce prices and any cause which renders it unattractive 
tends to increase them. 

“A third somewhat important cause of excess has been the enormous 
cost of transport of materials, especially of lime, of which some 80,000 tons 
have been or will be required. This cause has affected all the works more 
or less, though its principal effect has been on the main dam. The wire 
ropeway for conveying limestone from the foot of the ghaut to Tekadi camp 
has been most sucsessful and economical when at work, but the difficulties 
in erection were very much greater than was expected; it was not until 1891 
that it was got to work at all, and since then its working has been by no 
means uniform or constant, partly owing to the frequent repairs that have 
been found necessary and partly owing to the uncertainty of the water 
supply of the stream which provides the power for driving it. By the time 
the work is completed it will probably be found that at least half of the 
total quantity of lime used has been brought up by ordinary carts at a cost 
of about ten times that of carriage by ropeway. 

“ The cost of carriage from Tekadi to the site of the dam has also been 
greatly in excess of what was expected; I have never ceased to regret that 
I did not adhere to my first idea of a light railway, worked by locomotives, 
for this portion of the journey. It would have saved its cost over and over 
again and have been both cheaper and more trustworthy than the combined 
road and water carriage which has actually been adopted. 

‘‘ The deficiency of water power above alluded to had a special dele¬ 
terious effect on the tunnel, since the turbine and compressors at the north 
end, which were by far the cheapest mode of tunnelling, had to stop for 
want of water for several months in each working season. Progress was 
consequently slow and a shaft was sunk, a steam-plant purchased and 
tunnelling proceeded with at two more faces ; which made a great difference 
in cost. 


112 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


“ In the original rates the price of machinery was included for each 
subhead, and a small sum of Es. 60,000 only was allowed for tools and 
plant; hut iu the course of execution it was found that the machinery was 
so inextricably applied to several subheads of different works that it was 
impossible to debit it equitably to each. A separate subhead, tools and 
plant, was therefore opened to which the sum of Es. 7,57,000 was debited.” 

It will readily be seen that the incidence of the above causes of 
excess cannot be divided proportionately between the various component 
parts of the work, and it is therefore useless to enter into too minute a 
disquisition in comparison of the rates as estimated and as executed, 
the more so as the mode of operation was in several cases altered in 
toto. The following table will however give some idea of the principal 
differences, bearing in mind that the cost of machinery is excluded 
from the actual rates :— 


Table of Eates. 
Periydr No. 1 Division. 


— 

Estimate. 

Actual. 


RS. A. Rs. A. 

RS. A. RS. A. 

Maistry, per month ... 

50 0 

25 0 to 100 0 . 

Stone-cntter, per day . 


1 0 to 18 

Mason, per day 


0 12 to 14 

Carpenter . 


1 0 to 18 

Sawyer, per day 


0 12 

Fitter „ 


1 4 to 2 4 

Driver, per month ... 


30 0 to 175 0 

Smith, per day 

1 4 

0 12 to 18 

Head coolie, per day 

0 10 

0 8 to 0 12 

Coolie, man ,, . 

0 8 

0 6 to 08 

Do. woman ,, . 

0 4 ■ 

0 4 

Do. boy „ . 

0 3 

0 3 

Bullocks (pair) „ 


1 8 

Rubble, quarried and stacked, solid 



measurement, per 1,000 cubic feet. 

75 0 to 80 0 

85 0 to 121 0 



















n.] 


PEKIYAE PEOJECT, 


U3 


Table of Bates— 

Periydr No. 1 Division —cont. 



Estimate. 

Actual. 

Stone, broken, for concrete, by hand 
per 100 cubic feet 

RS. A. RS. A. 

R3. 

A. RS. 

9 0 

A. 

Stone, broken, for concrete, by 
machine ... ... ... ... 

1 8 

2 

8 to 5 

0 

Limestone, unburnt, per 100 cubic 
feet 

4 0 


15 0 


Limestone, burnt, and delivered at 
site ... 

17 0 


35 0 


Sand, on bank, per 100 cubic feet. 

4 0 

2 

0 to 4 

0 

Cement, per ton 

75 0 


no 0 


Firewood, on bank, per 100 cubic 
feet 

3 8 

2 

8 to 4 

0 

Charcoal, per parah of 40 lb. 



0 4 


Concrete, mixed, laid and rammed, 
per 100 cubic feet 

15 0 


33 0 


Unooursed rubble masonry, per 100 
cubic feet ... 



34 0 


Timber, per cubic foot 

3 0 

2 

0 to 3 

0 

Earthwork, 1,000 cubic feet 

5 0 

5 

0 to 12 

0 

Excavation in gravel and decom¬ 
posed rock, per 1,000 cubic feet ... 


15 

0 to 40 

0 

Tunnelling, per 100 cubic feet 

25 0 to 65 0 

60 

0 to 85 

0 

Drilling by hand, per 10 running 
feet 

3 0 

1 

0 to 2 

0 

Explosive, per lb. 

1 12 

1 

8 to 2 

0 


As regards the individual works the most important and that on 
which there was the largest excess was the main dam. Besides the 
general causes above alluded to there were others which affected either 
the quantities or the rates or both. In the original estimate the quan¬ 
tity and cost of concrete allowed for were 3,600,000 cubic feet at Es. 15 
per 100 cubic feet=R3. 5,10,000. It will be remembered from the 
description of the construction that a large proportion of ' uncoursed 
rubble masonry was used instead of concrete and the two combined 

p 


















114 


HISTORY or THE 


[chap. 


must be taken in comparing the estimated and actual quantities and 
rates. This would of itself be sufficient to account for a slight excess, 
since rubble masonry is somewhat dearer than concrete. At the 
Periydr, with water-power available, it might be expected to be much 
dearer, but various causes combine to render the difference less than 
might be anticipated—in fact the average rate for concrete was about 
Us. 33, and for rubble masonry under Rs. 34 per 100 cubic feet. The 
combined quantities and rates come out as follows:— 

HS. A. P, BS. 

3,330,571 cubic feet concrete at 33 3 2 per 100 = 11,05,688 

2,406,183 „ rubble masonry at 33 14 5 „ = 8,15,787 

5,736,754 „ at about 33 8 0 „ = 19,21,475 

These quantities include some that was not actually in the dam, 

but was required for subsidiary works, and also a certain amount de¬ 
stroyed by floods. Both these factors had a specially unfavourable 
effect on the rates, since the subsidiary works were mostly done in water 
under great difficulties, and reconstruction after damage by floods in¬ 
volved the expenditure of a great deal of money, if only on the score of 
urgency and in the employment of Portland Cement. The three prin¬ 
cipal causes, however, which injuriously affected the quantities and rates 
were : (1) the chasm in the river bed, which has been referred to suffi¬ 
ciently in the description of foundations, and which increased both 
quantity and rate in a manner not susceptible of accurate definition ; 
(2) the increased depth of excavation found necessary on both flanks, 
which augmented the quantity of masonry required and the rate for 
excavation; (3) the decision of the G-ovemment of India to prohibit 
the use of tunnels through the flanks for the control of the river; and 
(4) the fact that the stone from the water-shed cutting was not, on 
account of the expense of transport, available for use in the dam. After 
all the produce of the right bank escape was exhausted quarries had to 
be opened, and the rate for rubble masonry and concrete was thence¬ 
forward debited with Rs. 6 per 100 cubic feet on this account. Since 
the total quantity of stone supplied from the right bank escape was but 
little over two millions of cubic feet, it will be seen that a charge of 
more than two lakhs of rupees was thus incurred. 

It may be asked why, instead of opening quarries, opportunity 
was not taken to lengthen the escape ; but the north face of it, on 
which alone it was' possible to extend, was overlaid by an unusual 



n.] 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


115 

thickness of earth and decayed rock, the removal of which would have 
added greatly to the cost of quarrying. 

In the original rate of Its. 15 per 100 cubic feet for concrete no 
account was taken of labour in mixing and ramming since it was 
intended that this should be done by machinery. These processes 
W'ere abandoned as unsatisfactory in comparison with hand labour, and 
the actual cost of carriage from the tips, mixing, and ramming, was from 
Es. 6 to Es. per 100 cubic feet. There were also many minor 
charges, tho exact incidence of each of wliich cannot be w'orked out, 
but it may be said generally that there was a considerable under-estima¬ 
tion of the difficulties in commencing operations, in guarding against 
floods, in procuring sand, in transporting limestone, pending the com¬ 
pletion of the wire ropeway and canal, in the amount of work that must 
be done a second and a third time, in the quantity of Portland Cement 
required, in timber and carpenters’ work for bridges, gangways, ladders, 
rammers, and shoes for workmen. Labour-saving machinery, in several 
cases of a type unusual in India, was largely employed and it is not to 
be wondered at that the amount and quality of the labour used in con¬ 
junction, the cost of erection and maintenance, the amount of outturn 
and the life of the machines, were largely under-estimated. Machinery 
was nevertheless, on the whole, much cheaper than hand labour would 
have been, even had it been possible to collect a sufficient force of the 
latter, which would in itself have been a very difficult operation. 

The excesses in the other estimates are mostly due to the general 
causes already touched on, or to unavoidable under-estimation of quan¬ 
tities. Thus the machinery at the north end of tho tunnel took out 5 
running feet per day instead of 7, and stopped often for want of water, 
so that an auxiliary steam plant had to be installed. The quantity of 
rock in the right bank escape was greater than was expected. In the 
left bank extension special difficulties, described previously, accounted 
for a great part of the excess ; and the length of the time occupied 
accounts for a large share in the excess under the heads ‘ maintenance ’ 
and ‘ miscellaneous ’; while the cost of buildings w'as enormously in¬ 
creased by the extra amount of hand labour found necessary, by tho 
constant fires which often burnt whole lines of huts in a few minutes, 
and by the necessity of destruction and rebuilding by reason of epi¬ 
demics. It is improbable that a similar work will ever be undertaken, 
but should it be so the following general criticisms may be worthy of 
attention, viz., that all the preliminary works should bo in such a state 


116 


HISTOEY OF THE 


[ohae. 

of forwardness tliat there shall he no doubt as to their capability, be¬ 
fore the main works are begun ; and that machines should be purchased 
of double, or treble, or even quadruple the makers’ estimate of capa¬ 
city. It is, however, beyond human possibility that in so extraordinary 
an undertaking any estimate should, except by chance, approximate to 
the actual results. 

General Remarks. 

Before finally quitting the Head works some allusion must be made 
to various matters which could not be previously treated without hinder¬ 
ing the progress of the narrative, but which are yet of historical interest 
and had a perceptible bearing on the construction of the works. Not 
the least of these is the subject of health and sanitation, a serious 
question in all large enterprises, and one which has a considerable 
infiuence on the economy of engineering operations, since loss of health 
and unfavourable environment are drawbacks which can almost be 
estimated in currency, and the difference between the rates of wages in 
Nos. I and II divisions is a very fair measure of the disabilities involved 
in the works which have been described. 

The Periydr, as has been generally stated elsewhere, is one of those 
beautiful spots so common in the tropics where fever lurks behind a 
smiling countenance. The moderate height above the sea, the vast 
tracts of virgin forest, the strong sun and heavy rainfall, all constitute 
favourable conditions for an active and stubborn malaria which was one 
of the greatest hindrances to the work. From July to February the 
climate, though never healthy, is much better than in the hot weather 
months, when fever was so virulent as to compel an annual stoppage of 
operations. As the water rose in the lake, circumstances were not, at 
any rate for the time being, improved, since the large area of vegetation 
submerged and rotted added to the disease. The coolies, ill-fed, ill- 
clothed and reckless as all coolies are, were rendered more liable to sickness 
by a cold and dampness to which they were unaccustomed, and consti¬ 
tutions enfeebled by malaria offered little resistance to the assaults of 
rheumatism, dysentery and pulmonary complaints. From 1887 to 1891 
the hospitals were less perfectly organised than afterwards, the changes 
in the medical staff were frequent and the calibre unequal, and the 
labourers were slow to convince of the benefits of "Western methods of 
treatment. The hospital returns for this period are, therefore, valueless 
as a presentment of the health of the various camps. From 1891 
onwards they may be taken, as more reliable and are given below :— 



PERIYAE project. 


117 


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118 


HISTOET OF THE 


[chap. 






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July 

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November 

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PERIYAE PROJECT, 


119 


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120 


HISTORY OP THE 


[chap 


Remarks. 


d, 

a 

eS 

W 

• M 

eS 

M 

•q^uora jod 
000‘I Jad sqq'Bad 


•sq^j^ap j, 


•q'^nora jad 
000‘T •'ad s^aapnj 


•B^fuap^d inijoj, 

:::::::::::: 

•aoTi^'B^ndod eSeaaAy 

: • :. : : : : 

Periyar camp. 

•q'^noin jad 
OOO'l -lad sq^fnaQ 

eOWCOtO-^t-OOXONMCO ; 

•sq^j'Bap 

12 

18 

14 

9 

4 

5 

19 

17 

7 

10 

8 

••q'jTiora Jad 
OOO'l -tad B^naT-jnj 

320 

232 

271 

422 

686 

1,465 

648 

415 

379 

445 

724 

•s!}uat(jBd 

1,111 

870 

1,089 

611 

635 

1,094 

1,568 

1 

1,357 

1,363 

1,427 

1,848 

•uoi^^Bindod aSBiaAy 

3,471 

3,748 

4,008 

1,449 

925 

747 

2,418 

3,266 

3,596 

3,206 

2,551 

• • * 

Month. 

1895. 

January ... 

February 

March 

April 

May . 

June 

July . 

August 

September 

October ... 

N ovember 

December 







































periyXr project. 


121 


n.] 


But it must be borne in mind that tbe fatalism wbicb cbaracterises 
the lower classes in India and their reluctance to undergo treatment 
prevent even these returns from being an accurate measure of the 
hygienic conditions. As an illustration, a return of the deaths in the 
Periy^r camp for January 1896 is given below, taken at random but 
more nearly typical than might be believed :— 


Date. 

Name, 

Own or 
father’s 
occupation. 

Age. 

Cause of 
death. 


Remarks. 

1896. 

2nd January 

Sodalimadi ... 

Cooly 

YES. 

40 

Fever ... 

1 


3rd 

Muniappan ... 


3 

••• 

I 

. Not treated 

6tli ,, 

Angammah ... 


1 

Fever and 
ague. 

J 

1 in hospital. 

7th 

Ramalingam. 

M ••• 

6 

Anmmia. 

t 

Treated in 

hospital. 

loth 

Malayandi ... 

” 

40 

Fever ... 

Not treated in 
hospital. 

12th 

Subramaniam. 

„ 

38 

Pneumo- 


Treated in 

16 th „ 

18th „ 

Sodalimathu. 

Infant 

Head cooly. 

10 

Hist. 

Anaemia. 
Fever ... 


hospital. 

20th 

22nd fj ... 

Do. 

Pattivan 

Cooly 

M **. 

5 

34 

General 
debility. 
Ague ... 


^Not treated 
in hospital. 

25th 

Muniyandi ... 

Mason 

38 

Cirrhosis 
of liver. 

Treated in 

hospital. 

28th . 

Siranandi 

Tevan. 

Cooly 

38 

Leprosy, 

Not treated in 
hospital. 


Of these poor creatures, twelve in number, whose names are here 
given such immortality as can be conferred by an official publication, no 
less than eight never attended the hospital, AU deaths in the camp 
were ascertained and recorded, but many of the very sick were removed 
to the plains by their relations to die or recover, and never appear in the 
returns, and many were sick in their lines and recovered, and the medical 
officer knew nothing of it. Paying due regard to these facts, a glance 
at the monthly returns will give an idea of the extent to which disease, 
mostly fever or consequent complaints, played havoc with the labourers. 
The number actually treated per thousand per month was at Periydr 
nearly always more than 300 during the latter part of the work. It was 
often more than 400 per thousand, sometimes 500, 600 and 700, and 
during one month (June 1895) was no less than 1,465 per thousand. 
At Tdkadi the health was consistently worse than at Periydr, and it 
may be seen how at both places the returns of sick steadily increased 
year by year. Though this increase was partly due to superior hospital 

Q 
















182 


HISTORY OP THE 


[chap. 


organisation and was a tribute to the merits of an exceptionally able 
Assistant Surgeon, yet a great part was undoubtedly the result of the 
environment, but whether the cause was the lake or the works, or was 
an index of unusual seasons throughout the neighbourhood, cannot be 
decided. The officers and subordinates naturally suffered less than the 
work-people, being better clothed, housed and fed, but there was not 
one who did not suffer more or less from fever, and many had to be 
transferred at different times on that account. This was particularly 
the case with those who lived at T^kadi and on the Mulia Panjdn. 

Fever is believed to arise largely from the quality of the drinking 
water used, and in this particular the Periydr was ill-situated and did 
not admit of measurable improvement. The officers depended chiefly on 
a small spring which usually ran dry in January, and after that on 
wells. The subordinates, clerks and maistries drew their water from 
wells, as also did the hospital. The coolies, both at Periydr and Tdkadi, 
had wells, but mostly resorted to the Periydr or Mulia Panjdn for drink¬ 
ing water. From this water fever could not be eliminated, but precau¬ 
tions wore taken as far as possible to prevent them drinking such as 
had been used for washing clothes or persons, though their utter reck¬ 
lessness prevented these precautions from being more than partially 
successful. The water from various sources was analysed and the 
analysis is given below, but it, of course, conveys no idea of the fever¬ 
bearing qualities which were of primary import:— 


— 

Sub-Magis- 
trate’s well. 

Hospital 

well. 

Lake. 

1 River. 

No. 2 camp 
well. 

Clerks’ well. 

Total solids, germs per litre. 

0-080 

0-050 

0-060 

0-070 

0-080 

0-090 

Volatile solids, germs per 

0-040 

0-030 

0-030 

0-040 

0-040 

0-040 

litre. 







Chlorine, germs per litre ... 

0-007 

0-008 

0-005 

0-005 

0-007 

0-008 

Total hardness, Clark’s scale. 

I'OSO 

o^yoo 

0°525 

0°350 

0°350 

1'’750 

Permanent hardness, Clark’s 

1°050 

0°350 

0°525 

0°350 

0°350 

1°400 

scale. 







Free ammonia, mlgrms. per 

0-208 

0-104 

Trace. 

Trace. 

0-232 

Trace. 

litre. 







Albuminoid ammonia, 

0-320 

0-416 

0-120 

0-128 

0-288 

0-152 

mlgrms. per litre. 







Nitric acid, mlgrms. per litre. 

0-900 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 


2 


0) 

© 


© 

Apparent quality inferred. 

4-) 


3 

2 


3 


0 

a 

C3 

0 

ca 


c 

o 



O 


Q 

p 1 

0 


P 
















II.] 


periyAb project. 


123 


No smell was observed by the analyst in the specimens submitted to 
him, though both the lake and the river generally smelt abominably, 
and the analysis actually shows the lake and river water to be chemi¬ 
cally the best. In point of fact fever could not be materially reduced 
without a complete installation of distilled water, which the coolies 
would have refused to drink and which was otherwise financially 
impossible. 

There were', however, possible palliatives in warmth and good food. 
The latter rested with the coolies themselves and although their wages 
were unusually good, they lived as they always live, most of their extra 
pay going in cheap jewellery, tinsel and Manchester goods, of which 
considerable quantities were imported and quickly disposed of. They 
were enabled to obtain a little more meat than usual, and this was 
doubtless of value, but the total effect cannot have been very significant. 
They were undoubtedly eager for meat and the death of an occasional 
bison or sambur furnished them with an opportunity to festoon the 
camp with strings of flesh which were left to dry in the sun and were 
probably most unwholesome. Rice was bought by the Government and 
retailed at cost price or less, in order to bridle the exorbitance of local 
vendors, and beyond this nothing could be done. Warmth depended 
mostly on hutting and firewood. Firewood was easy of access and to 
be had for the picking, and in this particular the coolies were better off 
than on the plains in spite of the damper and colder climate. The hut¬ 
ting was throughout a vexed question, and it was only as a choice of 
evils that the camps were constructed almost entirely of thatch, which 
was plentiful and convenient. The lines constantly caught fire and 
probably no huts in the camp had a life of more than three years, the 
expense of reconstruction therefore being a formidable item; and if 
mud lines had been built from the beginning the cost would hardly 
have been greater in the end, and the coolies would no doubt have been 
better housed. There were however other considerations. A settlement 
of some 4,000 or 6,000 persons consisting almost entirely of coolies, 
in a narrow spaee, connotes an amount of filth beyond the capaeity of 
any reasonable sanitary staff to deal with. Sweepers were difficult to 
procure and demanded high wages, and a very great deal of money 
was expended on latrines and general cleanliness, nor were any pains 
spared to attain a decent hygienic standard. The following was found 
to be the least establishment capable of maintaining even a superficial 
cleanliness in a camp of from 3,000 to 4,500 souls:— 


124 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 





ES. 

A sub-overseer paid from establishment .. 


.. 600 

A sanitary inspector on 

Es. 30 .. 


.. 360 


'^A compounder 

„ 30 .. 


.. 360 


A compounder 

„ 25 .. 


.. 300 


A midwife 

„ 30 .. 


.. 360 

m 

o 

A surgery coolie 

„ 9 .. 


.. 108 

A ward coolie 

„ 9 .. 


.. 108 


A cook 

„ 10 .. 


.. 120 


Two sweepers 

„ 9 .. 


.. 216 


waterman 

„ 9 .. 


.. 108 

Five lascars 

„ 9 .. 


.. 540 

Twenty-six sweepers 

„ 9 .. 


.. 2,808 

Repairs, various 

.. 


.. 350 

Sundries 



.. 290 


Total per annnni .. 6,628 

The sanitary supervision remained in the hands of the Superintend¬ 
ent of Works and was most closely conducted. Nevertheless the soil 
in and around the lines speedily became clogged and sodden with im¬ 
purities. Bad as the fever was there was a worse enemy, namely, 
cholera, of which there were many sporadic cases and two serious epi¬ 
demics, which not only killed a considerable number of people, but drove 
the coolies to their villages and caused a dislocation of the work and a 
strain of anxiety to the staff which it was imperative should not be of 
frequent occurrence. The following extract from a letter from the 
Superintendent of Works to the Chief Engineer, dated llth March 
1894, conveys a commentary on one of these epidemics:— 

“ I have the honour to report that labour has now fallen in consequence 
of the cholera to such a point that it is impossible to carry on work any 
longer, 

‘‘ In an average population of 2,417(5,000 at the commencement and a few 
scores at the end) there occurred in 20 days 81 cases, of which 45 had 
ended fatally, not taking into account the deaths which have still to occur 
amongst the patients still under treatment. This is equivalent to 787 cases 
and 437 deaths per day in Madras town, with a population of 450,000. 
"Even these figures are far from representing the real severity of the out¬ 
break, for it is known that many of the coolies were attacked after leaving 
the camp. Bive dead bodies have been reported to me as being found qH 












II.] 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


125 


the roads, one died at Kumili, and there must have been many more cases 
and probably several deaths. 

“For the first nine days of the epidemic the infected houses were burnt 
down and their sites disinfected, every hut in the camp was fumigated, 
medicines were distributed, orders were given to boil all drinking-water, 
drains and latrines were disinfected with quicklime and strenuous exer¬ 
tions were made by cleanliness and any other measures that suggested 
themselves to stamp out the disease. As these all proved ineffective, it 
was determined to transport the whole population into a temporary rest 
camp on the south bank of the river. This was done and immediately 
resulted in a short lull in the number of cases. The disease soon re¬ 
asserted itself however, and after a week it was decided to allow the coolies 
to return to their former camp which had meanwhile been thoroughly sprink¬ 
led with solution of corrosive sublimate and afterwards with quicklime. 
Another lull followed which again proved delusive. There remained 
nothing to be done except to patrol the lines, with a view to taking each 
case in good time, and to isolate and disinfect, by burning, in each case as 
it occurred. The population continued to dwindle and one line after 
another to disappear by firing, till there now remain about 200 coolies, the 
exodus not yet ended, and the camp is merely a patch of blackened ground.” 

The Sanitary Commissioner added as a corollary to this report that 
the camp had been, too long occupied, irrespective of cholera, and should 
be moved, on account of the general contamination of the soil with 
organic matter. 

The constant fires in the lines were therefore not an -unmixed catas¬ 
trophe, since they were more efficient purifiers than any number of 
sweepers. They would not have occurred, or not so thoroughly or so 
frequently, in mud lines, and such lines could not have been abandoned 
and rebuilt elsewhere and the sites broken up and left to purify, as was 
often done with the grass lines. After the cholera epidemic of February 
1894 the whole camp was burnt and transferred to the other bank of 
the river, with manifest benefit when cholera again occurred in the 
ensuing season, and, failing to find a nidus or channels of transmission, 
was easily segregated and stamped out. 

A brief reference must be made to the subject of accidents, from 
which no great work can be altogether free. The majority were con¬ 
nected with nitro-glyoerine or detonators and were nearly all due to the 
incredible carelessness of the labourers. A prolific cause of accident was 
misfires in the blasting. A misfire was always marked with a red flag 
ftnd pointed out to the drillers, who, however, frequently removed the 


l26 


HISTORY OP THE 


[chap. 


flag and used a jumper in the drill-hole, in order to give it the appear¬ 
ance of a new hole and receive payment for it. The result was 
generally not long in doubt, hut it was remarkable how often injury 
alone, and not death, occurred in consequence, and how many recovered 
from wounds seemingly fatal. One man, fishing with stolen dynamite, 
blew off both his arms and one eye, blew a hole from below his chin into 
his mouth, received severe flesh wounds on his chest and face, and lay 
bleeding for 6 or 7 hours ; and yet made a good recovery. There were 
also naturally a certain number of accidents from machinery, but won¬ 
derfully few resulted in death. One such accident will however always 
retain a mournful prominence, an accident by which on 12th October 1891 
Mr. H. S. Taylor, then Superintendent of Works, lost his life in the 
prime of his strength and in the midst of a career that promised great 
distinction. Mr. Taylor was in executive charge of the works from their 
commencement in 1887, and, in the words of His Excellency the 
G-ovemor in Council in recording his sorrow at the event and his sense 
of the loss which the public service sustained thereby, “the success with 
which the difiiculties attending this important undertaking have been 
grappled with is in no small degree due to his energy and professional 
skiU.” 



pbriyXb project. 


127 


in.] 


CHAPTER III. 


Amount of water available—Description of distribution works. 

In designing the distribution works the first requisite was an estimate, 
as reliable as was possible, of the quantity of water available for irri¬ 
gation. With this view rainfall observations were taken at a point 
not far from the subsequent site of the main dam during the years 
1869-1873, and the discharges of the river were gauged during the same 
years. The tables VI and VII in the appendix give in tabular form the 
results then arrived at. Similar observations at two stations were after¬ 
wards made during the years 1889-96. The average rainfall during 
these years, at the observing stations, was somewhat less than the 
average of table VI, while the average discharges were somewhat more. 
The river discharges according to depths on the gauge below the main 
dam were calculated from sections and from velocities partly observed 
and partly computed, and were as follows :— 


Depth 
on gauge. 

Discharge. 

Depth 
on gauge. 

Disoharga. 

FEET. 

C. FT. A SEC. 

FEET. 

C. FT. A SEC. 

1 

0 

13 

17,075 

2 

490 

14 

19,809 

3 

636 

15 

22,733 

4 

1,433 

16 

25,682 

5 

2,180 

17 

29,003 

6 

3,907 

18 

32,556 

7 

5,575 

19 

35,638 

8 

7,352 

20 

39,432 

9 

8,796 

21 

42,373 

10 

10,728 

22 

46,251 

11 

12,755 

23 

50,509 

12 

14,975 

24 

53,811 


The monthly average depths on the gauge from 1889 were as 
follows:— 














128 


HISTORY OP THE 


[chap 


w 

e3 

S 

<0 

P4 

'jequieoed 

•jequieAO^ 

•jeqo^oO 

•jeqme^deg 

•{fsnSny 

•Air 

•0unp 

■jCupi 

qijdy 

•qojupi 

•ifj'Bnjqed 

'ii'Bnuur 

Tear. 


0) 

be 

OD c6 

c3 fe 


O © 

S > S • 

c3 ^3 

*" a-2 

© fH 

® 2 i.fc 



05 

rH 

o 

00 



05 

o 

r-4 

oo 

05 

CO 

kO 

kO 


05 

CO 


CO 


CO 

CO 

■ip 

• 

CO 

rH 

Oi 

i> 


00 

o 

O 


00 

o 


05 


00 

rH 

cq 


r>. 

Jt> 


CO 

io 

CO 

kb 

kb 

• 

■ip 

cq" 

O 


rH 


kO 

Ol 


CO 

o 

l> 

-tp 

CO 

<n 

00 

CO 


00 

O) 



kb 

■jp 

■^p 

■ip 


■ip 


o 

05 

(M 





o 

o 

i> 

rH 


rH 

rH 




CO 

o 


CO 

•^p 


■ip 

t 

■ip 

x> 









rH 

o 

o 

\o 


00 

CO 


CO 

o 

05 

05 

o 

rH 

CO 

CO 


'p 

CO 


OO 


kb 

•Jp 

■ip 


ip 

t> 










CO 

rH 

lO 

o 


CO 



o 

rH 

00 

o 



05 


00 

00 

kh 

CO 

kb 

kb 

X 

■ip 

z 


o 









cq 

00 

00 

<M 

o 




CO 

o 

CO 

00 

W5 

00 

CO 

CO 

cq 

X 

1> 

CO 

• 

(^q 

CO 

00 

o 

lO 

o 

o 


00 


rH 

o 

05 

<N 

O) 

tH 

05 

cq 

(N 

CO 

M 

rH 

00 

* 

00 

(k 

rH 

CO 

00 


05 

cq 

o 

kO 



o 

o 

CO 

05 

kO 

00 


1 

rH 

kO 

h 

(N 

<N 

CO 

CO 

CO 


CO 

1> 


CO 

00 

rH 

oq 

CO 

Q 

GO 

o 

1 

(M 

CO 

rH 

CO 

<N 

■^ 

oq 

CO 


N 

CO 

00 

■jp 

CO 

CO 

CO 

00 


o 

CO 

CO 


05 

05 

cq 

o 

1 

(M 

o 

\o 

kO 

rH 

rH 

rH 

o 


N 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 



rH 

VO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 


o 


05 

o 

o 

kO 

CO 

CO 

■p 

00 



CO 

■Jp 

CO 

CO 


CO 

05 

: 

: 


• 


: 

; 


6 

© 









CD 









d 

« 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 



1 

• 


* 

• 

• 

• 

1 

CH 









d 









© 

, 

, 

• 

. 


, 



tr 

♦ 


• 


• 


• 










M 

d 








CH 

© 

© 

(C 

• 


• 


: 

: 



no 

* 

* 




• 


© 

© 








50 

50 








a 


05 

o 

rH 

(M 

CO 


kO 

u 


00 

05 

05 

05 

05 

05 

05 

© 

© 

00 

00 

00 

00 

00 

00 

QO 


> 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 

rH 


rH 

A 



Total average discharge ... 41,942 millions of cubic feet per year. 
































II..] 


PEUIYAR PROJECT. 


129 


For reasons stated in deseribing the tunnel it is not easy to check 
the above figures by the actual discharge during the season 1896-97 (the 
only season for which there are records at present) but it can be roughly 
done. Taking the full discharge of the tunnel at 1,100 cubic feet 
a second, the amount delivered during 1896-97 was about 24,000 
millions of cubic feet, and there was about 16,000 millions of cubic feet 
of surplus discharged over the escape. Adding 2,000 millions of cubic 
feet for evaporation on the Periydr lake and 1,000 millions for addition 
to the contents, the total amounts to 43,000 millions of cubic feet, from 
which it would appear that the discharges in the above table agree 
fairly with the estimate. The season 1896-97 chanced to be one of 
rather heavy rainfall, but in any case in designing the distribution 
works the estimated delivery into the lake was taken at 32,900 millions 
of cubic feet, from which was deducted 1,740 millions for evaporation 
on the lake, 990 millions for evaporation in the Surulidr and the Yaigai, 
and 500 millions for preliminary absorption in the beds of these rivers, 
leaving 29,670 millions available for irrigation : and this quantity was 
considered to be easily capable of irrigating 90,000 acres of first crop 
and 60,000 acres of second crop. 

The Periydr water, after leaving the tunnel, enters the bed of the 
Vairavandr, and then the Suruliyar, the latter a tributary of the Vaigai, 
by which it flows to Peranai (an existing anient on the Yaigai about 
20 miles west of Madura), at which point the distributary channels take 
off. From the tunnel[to the junction of the Suruliydr and the Yaigai is 
about 46 miles and from thence to Peranai about 40 miles. 

There are two anicuts on the Yairavandr and thirteen on the Suru¬ 
liyar, from which 12,000 acres have hitherto been irrigated, the supply 
being ample, except in very dry seasons, for the requirements of these 
crops; and the conformation of the country precludes the idea of any 
important extension of irrigation in this quarter. It is probable that 
about 80 cubic feet a second of Periydr water is the utmost that can be 
abstracted for any possible increase. It was at first proposed to pass the 
Periydr water round the flanks of these anicuts in such a manner that it 
could be shut off from the channels taking off from them, so that if 
demands were made for more water, the amount could be measured and 
the usual charge made. The insignificance of the quantity that could 
possibly be required rendered the expense of such works disproportionate 
to the profit, and it was eventually decided merely to repair the anicuts 

B 


130 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


and to provide head slniees to the existing channels. This has accord- 
inglj been done, 1 cubic foot a second being allowed for 30 acres direct 
irrigation and 8 acres tank irrigation, and the ryots are to be allowed to 
take what water they wish for the existing wet cultivation, but no 
extension of the latter is to be permitted. This arrangement will have 
an almost inappreciable effect upon the Periydr supply, and as the latter 
will be almost perennial storage in tanks will be unnecessary and the 
expense of maintaining the existing tanks will be saved and should be 
credited to the Periydr project. 

The waterway of the Vairavandr and Suruliydr from the foot of 
the ghaut to the second anieut is too small to carry the whole of the 
Periydr water and will have to be enlarged and trained. This has not 
yet been done, nor was it included in the estimates. Below the second 
anieut the section and bedfall are sufficient. If the Surulidr is dry the 
Periydr water passes over the anicuts with a dej)th of from 10 inches 
to feet, but when the river itself is in flood the extra depth due 
to the Periydr water will not amount to more than a few inches. One 
masonry bridge has been built across the Vairavandr and two across 
the Suruliydr, and two more'will have to be constructed, but although 
the Periydr water has emphasised the necessity of these bridges they 
were previously a crying want and the cost of their construction has 
not been debited to the project. Their absence was a great source of 
expense and delay to the head works. The lowest contract rate for 
carriage from the railway to Tekadi, a distance of 76 miles, was one 
rupee a hundredweight for smaU articles, but in the case of large pack¬ 
ages special arrangements had to be made for trollies, elephants, lifting 
and breakdown tackle, and large gangs of coolies, and instances occurred 
in which machinery was as long as six months on the road, and one 
expensive coil of steel wire rope was quite spoilt by long immersion in 
the bed of a river. 

The distribution works, as originally proposed and as revised, are 
best given in tabular form :— 



Originals. 

Revised. 


ES. 

ES, 

Main Canals. 

Preliminary expenses 

18,000 

24,708 

Land compensation ., ,. ,. 

1,14,535 

74,184 


m.] 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 




Originals. 

Revised, 



BS. 

RS, 


1.—Reach. 



Eepairs to Peranai anicut .. ., 

5,oao 


Head sluice .. 

• • • • 

71,700 

27,353 

Pegulatoi s 

. . • • 

20,800 

.. 

Scouring sluice 

• • « • 

., 

16,108 

Head sluice to Vadagarai channel .. 

.. 

5,281 

Fall and bridge 

.. 

6,200 

6,625 

2 bridges 


15,700 

.. 

4 bridges 


.. 

26,138 

5 cross drainage culverts 

32,500 

28,260 

2 aqueducts .. 

.. 

7,800 

10,299 

Surplus sluice to Ramarajapuram .. 

3J,000 

34,543 

Do. to Nachikulam 

16,100 

.. 

Iron trough .. .. 


.. 

1,000 

7 irrigation sluices .. 


.. 

3,936 

Earthwork 

11. — Reach. 

1,40,655 

1,50,758 

Regulator 



11,000 

3 inlets and outlets .. 

• * • • 

34,790 


2 aqueducts ., 

f ♦ • • 


37,359 

Culvert 

• • • • 

6,500 

5,070 

Cross drainages 

• • • ■ 


3,440 

Trunk road diversion 

• • « • 

6,620 

• • 

Bridge 

♦ • • » 

5,700 

5,903 

Sluice .. .. 


.. 

l,19l> 

Earthwork 

III. — Reach. 

34,680 

53,541 

7 inlets and outlets ,. 

t • • • 

97,780 


6 superpassages ., 

* • • # 

•• 

85,660 

1 aqueduct 


- 

24,852 




222 

Drop .. • • 

• . • • 

.. 

2,075 

3 bridges .. .. 


10,500 

10,632 



5,310 


4 sluices 


• • 

5,496 

Earthwork 

IV. — Reach. 

71,665 

1,03,228 

Inlet and outlet 

t % • • 

12,380 

• • 

Culvert • t • • 

• f • • 

• f 

6,767 


m 














HISTORY OP THE 


[chap. 


Originals. Revised. 

RS, RS. 



IV. 

— Reach —cent. 



2 weirs 




, , 

750 

Sluice 




1,770 

1,388 

2 iron troughs 




.. 

1,983 

Bridge 




.. 

3,100 

Earthwork 




8,395 

24,992 



r.— 

■Reach. 



3 aqueducts ., 




93,340 

.. 

2 superpassages 




.. 

43,826 

2 culverts 

• • 


% • 

,, 

9,837 

2 iron troughs 

• • 


• • 

. . 

1,710 

2 bridges 

t • 


• • 

7,650 

7,361 

Earthwork ., 




29,035 

30,300 



VI.- 

-Reach. 



2 inverted syphons 




12,300 

.. 

1 inlet and 2 outlets 




20,660 

.. 

1 weir 




• • 

3,929 

2 syphon culverts 





9,265 

1 superpassage 




• • 

8,890 

1 culvert 




• • 

2,889 

2 iron troughs 



• • 


1,793 

1 bridge 



• • 

3,460 

.. 

3 bridges 


• • 

• • 


8,094 

Earthwork 


• • 


35,375 

49,300 



vn.~ 

-Reach. 



3 inlets and outlets 



t • 

37,140 

., 

3 culverts 



• « 

.. 

10,540 

1 superpassage 



* • 

.. ■ 

10,192 

1 bridge 



• • 

1,040 

.. 

2 bridges 




.. 

6,994 

Diversion of road 




1,100 

.. 

Earthwork 




22,405 

22,405 



VIII.- 

— Reach. 



Inlet and outlet 




12,380 

. . 

2 outlet weirs 




. . 

2,440 

Diversion of nullah 

• • 



,, 

1,000 

Bridge .. 

• • 



3,670 

.. 

Bridge and regulator 

• • 


.. 

8,150 

Earthwork 




9,475 

14,500 












Ill-] PERIYAE PROJECT, ’ l33 

Originals, Eevised. 

ES. ES. 

IX.~ Reach. 

2 inlets and outlets .. .. .. 24,760 

2 culverts . ,. 12,630 

Sluice. 1,770 650 

Earthwork. 5,660 10,099 

X. — Reach. 

2 inlets and outlets .. .. .. 24,760 

2 culverts . * .. 9,176 

Sluice 1,770 650 

Bridge . .. 2,000 

Earthwork .. 3,660 4,200 

XI. — Reach. 

5 drops . . .. .. ., 15,990 

1 drop .. .. .. .. ., 1,150 

4 inlets and 9 outlets .. .. 91,320 

5 outlet weirs .. .. .. 6,810 

4 culverts .. .. .. .. .. 11,090 

2 superpassages .. .. .. 7,850 

Sluice .. .. .. .. 1,770 650 

3 iron troughs .. .. .. .. 3,000 

Bridge . . . . .. .. 2,380 

5 bridges .. .. .. .. _ 11,060 

Earthwork .. .. .. .. 30,650 39,512 

XIL—Reach. 

2 inlets and outlets .. .. .. 24,760 

1 outlet weir .. .. .. .. .. 1,000 

1 drop .. .. .. .. .. 1,000 

Bridge . 2,380 

Earthwork .. .. .. 4,260 6,000 

Buildings .. .. .. .. 10,000 27,352 

Maintenance during construction .. 53,000 53,034 

Butrihutaries, 

Preliminary expenses .. .. 10,000 9,496 

Land compensation .. .. .. 69,285 69,285 



















[chap, 


lU 


HISTORY OF THE 


2 head sluices 

I. — Branch. 

Originals. 

RS. 

3,540 

Revised. 

BS, 

2,050 

8 drops ., 

.. 

5,820 

.. 

7 drops and sluices combined 

.. 

6,166 

2 culverts 


5,480 

.. 

Superpassage 

.. 


1,220 

Culvert 


.. 

1,000 

Aqueduct 


.. 

1,400 

Itoad tunnel .. 

.. 


400 

11 sluices 


3,150 

,, 

Earthwork 


13,530 

6,038 

Head sluice .. 

JI. — Branch. 

1,770 

2,260 

3 drops 


1,950 

.. 

2 drops and sluices combined 

.. 

2,005 

1 drop 

.. 

.. 

640 

Culvert 


2,740 

.. 

3 culverts 


.. 

952 

Koad tunnel .. 


960 

,, 

2 road tunnels 

> • • f 

.. 

645 

4 sluices 


1,270 

.. 

Earthwork 


5,500 

4,435 

2 head sluices 

III. — Branch. 

2,250 


1 head sluice 

.. 

.. 

. 1,624 

12 drops 

.. 

8,700 

.. 

7 drops 


.. 

5,910 

4 drops and sluices combined ., 

.. 

3,899 

Cul ^ert 


2,740 

,. 

Superpassage 

. 

•. 

1,003 

Eoad tunnel .. 


.. 

615 

14 sluices 


4,150 

.. 

12 sluices 


., 

3,490 

Earthwork 

. 

9,240 

8,336 

2 head sluices 

IV. — Branch. 

4,270 

3,295 

5 regulators .. 


2,400 

.. 

2 regulators .. 


.. 

691 

21 drops 


18,730 

.. 

11 drops 

.. 


8,432 























m.] 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


135 


Originals. Revised. 



RS. 

RS. 

IV. — Branch —cont. 


11 drops and sluices'combined 

• . 

8,509 

2 drops and road tunnels combined.. 

, » 

3,875 

2 drops and weirs combined 


2,026 

3 road tunnels 

2,370 


4 road tunnels .. .. * 


1,635 

1 slab drain .. 


281 

26 sluices 

8,380 

• • 

36 sluices .. ., 

, ^ 

11,050 

Earthwork 

37,750 

37,750 

V. — Branch. 



Head sluice ., 

1,770 

1,071 

Eegulator 

480 

480 

16 drops 

10,470 

. . 

14 drops 

.. 

8,292 

2 drops and sluices combined 

.. 

1,149 

2 iron aqueducts 

1,500 

.. 

8 sluices 

2,590 

,, 

10 sluices 

.. 

3,250 

Bridge 

790 

330 

Earthwork 

10,665 

10,665 

VI. — Branch. 



Head sluice .. 

1,770 

1,100 

9 drops 

5,740 

.. 

8 drops 

.. 

4.070 

Drop and sluice combined .. 

.. 

580 

Slab drain 

, , 

280 

6 sluices 

1,930 

1,930 

Earthwork 

6,745 

6,745 

VII. — Branch. 



Head sluice .. 

1,770 

1,100 

8 drops 

4,590 

4,590 

4 sluices 

1,280 

1,280 

Earthwork 

1,460 

1,460 

VIII, — Branch. 



Head sluice 

1,770 

1,100 

2 regulators .. .. .. .. 

960 

960 

























136 


HISTORT OP THE 


[chap. 




Originals, 

Revised. 



RS. 

ES. 


FI/I. — Branch — cont . 


12 drops 


7,750 

7,750 

5 sluices 


1,930 

1,930 

Earthwork 

IX— -Branch. 

7,090 

7,090 

2 head sluices 

.. 

4,270 

.. 

1 head sluice .. 


.. 

2,440 

5 regulators ., 


2,400 

1,920 

44 drops 

.. 

38,930 

.. 

2 drops and regulators combined .. 

.. 

1,130 

40 drops 


.. 

33,340 

Drop and superpassage combined .. 

.. 

1,750 

4 drops and sluices combined 


2,460 

6 culverts 


16,440 

.. 

4 culverts 


.. 

3,230 

2 superpassages 


.. 

2,900 

3 road tunnels 

• • • • • • 

3,500 

2,010 

44 sluices . < 


14,870 

.. 

40 sluices 


.. 

13,440 

Earthwork 

. 

56,640 

56,640 


X— Branch. 



3 head sluices 

.. 

5,110 

4,420 

3 regulators .. 


1,440 

1,440 

29 drops 


36,260 

.. 

22 drops 


.. 

22,400 

5 drops and sluices combined 

.. 

5,190 

19 culverts 


52,060 

52,060 

Eoad tunnel . . 


1,270 

1,270 

33 sluices 

• • • t • • 

11,560 

11,560 

Earthwork 

XI. — Branch. 

66,225 

66,225 

Head sluice .. 


1,770 

1,050 

Regulator 


480 

480 

6 drops 


4,680 

.. 

10 drops ,. 


.. 

7,68C 

Road tunnel .. 


960 

960 

12 sluices 


3,810 

3,810 

Earthwork 


13,150 

13,150 

























III.] 


PERIYAI} PROJECT, 


137 



Originals. 

Revised, 

XIL — Branch. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Head sluice .. 

2,500 

2,500 

3 regulators .. 

1,440 

1,440 

Drop 

2,040 

.. 

5 drops 

.. 

5,240 

3 road tunnels 

3,020 

3,020 

30 sluices 

54,220 

54,220 

Earthwork 

9,930 

9,930 

Buildings 

5,000 

5,000 

Maintenance during construction .. 

40,000 

40,000 

Unforeseen works 


4,844 

Total main canal (12 reaches) 

13,67,000 

12,64,000 

Total distributaries (12 branches) .. 

7,53,000 

7,15,000 

Grand total .. 

21,20,000 

19,79,000 


Subsequent to the submission of the revised estimates it was deter¬ 
mined also to excavate minor distributaries except such as irrigated 
less than 50 acres, and these will amount to a further sum of about 
Rs. 2,00,000. 

From the above statement it will be at once seen that the distribu¬ 
tion works were both numerous and important, and such as to demand 
great skill and judgment in design. In the course of the work the 
whole of the canals were re-aligned and every masonry work designed 
afresh, so that it is unnecessary to deal ■with the works except as thus 
modified. 

As above stated, the point selected for off-take from the river Vaigai 
was at Peranai, an old anient of native con- 
anicut and head g^ruction, for the benefit of the Vadagarai 
channel, which already irrigated 4,200 acres 
through an open head. This anicut is 1,300 feet long and runs in a 
tortuous line skew to the river (see Plate XIII). The crest is not 
uniform, there being in places a difference of a foot in level, and the 
section also is very irregular. Through repeated repairs, however, it 
has become fairly massive and though the maximum flood velocity is 
computed to be 28 feet per second the greater part of the coping is of 
granite, and it was therefore decided not to make extensive alterations. 
For 900 feet on the right the foundation is of rock and the coping is 

s 











138 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


laid on a body wall of brickwork of varying depth. The left portion is 
built on soft soil, and a massive but irregular apron has accumulated in 
rear. These portions were left practically untouched, but on the extreme 
left a scouring sluice was built consisting of 5 vents of 5^ feet by 6 feet 
(see Plate XV). The shutters are worked by screw gearing from a 
platform 10| feet above the crest of the anicut and 3f feet above the 
highest recorded flood, the sill of the sluices being 7^ feet below the 
crest. On the right and left massive wings form a junction with the 
anicut and head sluice, respectively,' and the left bank of the river in 
rear is heavily revetted. 

The head sluice is an important structure of 8 vents of 10 feet span, 
with sluice gates 10| feet by 9 feet worked by double screws connected 
by a chain on toothed pinions. The sills are 6 feet below the anicut 
crest, the platform being at the same level as that of the scouring sluice. 
The area of-the vents when free from silt is 480 square feet and they are 
designed to pass 2,016 cubic feet a second with a velocity of 4-20 feet. 
The dimensions and particulars will be best seen by a reference to the 
plan (Plate XIV). 

The main canal is nearly 38 miles in length and is divided into 
eleven reaches, the particulars of which are as 

Main canal. 

follows:— 


Number of 

reach. 

Length. 

Bottom 

width. 

Side 

slopes. 

Jlepth. 

Bedfall 
per mile. 

Velocity 
per second. 

Discharge : 
per second.] 


M. 

F. 

FT. 

FT. 


FT. 


FT. 


COB. FT. 1 

1 

7 

2 

0 

100 


1 


r 

1-16 

2-81 

1,838 j 

2 

3 

2 

0 

71 





1-19 

2-74 

1,315 j 

3 

6 

3 

190 

68-8 





1-20 

2-74 

1,279 j 

4 

1 

2 

140 

62-0 





1-21 

2-70 

1,150 

6 

2 

2 

90 

51-2 





1-24 

2-64 

954 

6 

3 

6 

400 

48-5 

1 

. s 

CO <j 


1-25 

2-65 

914 













7 

1 

6 

560 

46-8 





1-25 

2-66 

890 

8 

1 

2 

200 

46-2 



i 

i 

1-25 

2-66 

881 

9 

1 

1 

460 

43-7 





1-27 

2-62 

828 

10 

0 

6 

640 

27-3 





1-37 

2-63 

573 

11 

5 

4 

0* 

15 

J 


1 


1-59 

2-70 1 

389 

i 


























III.] 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


139 


From the main canal diverge twelve branches composed as follows :— 


Number of 
branch. 

Length. 

Bottom 

width. 

Side 

slopes. 

Depth. 

Bedfall 
per mile. 

Velocity 
per second. 

Discharge 
per second. 

1 

M. 

♦ 

K. 

FT. 

1 

FT. 

12 

r 

1 

FT. 

6 

FT. 

6 1 

FT. 

2-17 

CUB. FT. 

65 

2 

1 

3 

540 

4 1 


6 

6 

17G 

26 

3 

4 

0 

450 

7-75 ! 


6 i 

^ ! 

1'94 

42 

4 

4 

7 

160 

19'5 ! 


6 

6 

2-30 

104 

5 

5 

0 

500 

5 1 


6 

6 

1-84 

30 

6 

3 

3 

100 

3 


6 

G 

I 1-65 

20 

7 

iff 



075 I 


6 

G 

1-33 

10 

8 

3 

0 

360 

4 ! 


6 

i 

171 

24 

9 

10 

0 

568 

30 1 


3 

3 

1 

2-57 

265 

10 

7 

2 

520 

27-5 

1 


3 

! 3 

2-58 

248 

11 

5 

2 

380 

^ I 


3 

1 3 

2-33 

94 

12 

13 

1 

550 

22 j. 

j i 

4 

! 3 

1 

2-97 

333 


* Nofc yet dug. 


The country in the vicinity of the Vaigai is undulating and irregular, 
and by no means ideal for irrigation, necessitating much deep cutting 
and rock excavation, many sharp curves, and numerous drops and 
regulators. There is also a great deal of cross drainage and existing 
irrigation which it was inconvenient to command from the Periydr 
channels, and a large number of masonry works was requisite on these 
accounts. A further large item is the bridges of various sizes, amounting 
to no less than 45 on the main canal and main branches, which have 
had to be provided wherever a cart-track, however exiguous, previously 
existed, and which have debited the project with a considerable capital 
charge, while extra expense has also been incurred by adapting many of 
the drops, regulators and superpassages to the same purpose. An econo¬ 
mical alignment was rendered difficult by a period of scarce rainfall 
which occurred just before the course of the main canal was laid out. 
Work had to be found at once for a large number of coolies at various 
points, and these points thus became fixed for the future, and the rest 
Qf the line had to be worked in to meet them, Apart from this 


























140 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


convenience of command was the first consideration, followed by facility 
in cntting" cross drainages, and after allowing for these factors, the rest 
of the line was then laid out in the most economical manner possible. 
It was, on the whole, found best to cut through ridges instead of following 
contours, a reduction of nearly two miles in length being thus effected 
with a corresponding saving in head and in maintenance, modified by a 
slight increase in distributaries. The total length of the main canal is 
nearly 38 miles, the depth being throughout 6 feet, and the carrying 
capacity 2,016 cubic feet a second at the head, and 288 cubic feet a 
second at the tail, where it runs into the 12th branch. The side slopes 
are 1| to 1 in earth, vertical in rock, there is a berm of 10 feet on each 
side, and the designed height of the banks is 12 feet above the bed with 
slopes of 2 to 1 and a top width of 6 feet. The bottom width is 100 feet 
at head and 12 feet at tail, the surface fall varying from 1T6 to 2‘53 feet 
per mile, giving a velocity of from 3 to 4 feet per second. The total 
fall is 71T9 feet, which includes four droj)s aggregating 19-25 feet, the 
afl9.ux at superpassages and the level lengths in the beds of fourteen 
tanks passed through. The bank is double throughout to exclude cross 
drainage, except for three flush inlets where the canal is commanded by 
Mattaparai tank, and near large cross drainage works the upper bank is 
made 1 foot or 1| feet higher than normal. "Where the cutting was 
greater than the economic routine section, all extra spoil ^was thrown on 
the right bank to assist in widening the inspection road, except where 
the left bank needed strengthening against floods, but where roads for 
traffic had to be made or diverted parallel to the canal they were made 
at the outer toe of the banks. Trees are being by degrees planted along 
the toe to afford shade and mark the boundary. In places where the 
soil was loose, grass was dibbled on the banks, in some places they were 
turfed, and in a few it was necessary to plant sea-pink. All approaches 
to cross-drainage works were revetted, as well as three of the tanks 
passed through, namely, Edmaraj.ipuram, Ndchikulam and Vedakulam. 
In eases where extra earthwork for the banks was needed, borrow pits 
were at first made in the bed of the canal, leaving a 10-feet berm, but 
excavation in the deep soil was costly, and it was therefore found advis¬ 
able to take earth from outside the banks, leaving 15 to 18 feet of 
margin. The work thus done was in some cases directly advantageous, 
since it lowered the level of fields which would not otherwise have been 
commanded. The banks were found to stand best which were formed 
of soil the result of disintegrated surface rook, as they became quickly 


FALL ON THE MAIN CANAL. 





















III.] PERIYAR PROJECT. 141 

covered witli natural grass. Tlie most troublesome banks were those 
formed of yellow soil mixed with kuukur, or of black cotton soil. High 
banks of the latter material have spread at the base and have had to be 
helped in places with revetment. In delicate places the berms were 
sloped inwards and the top of banks outwards and small turf banks 
constructed to direct the drainage. The 1st, 3rd, 6th, 11th, 18th, 21st 
and 26th miles were in deep cutting in rock or hard red soil with bands 
of kunkur. Elsewhere the soil was easy to excavate. 

The slope of the country is naturally steep, being as much as 1 in 150 
^ ^ , over wide areas, and there are numerous bare hills, 

while the whole drainage basin is singularly devoid 
of trees and small vegetation, with rock often exposed or but a short 
distance below the surface. Falls of rain of 1 inch in 15 minutes and 
6| inches in 12 hours have been observed, and on these grounds a high 
percentage of run off was allowed for, the actual figures being as 
follows :— 

Area, Run off per hour. 

SQ. MILES. INCHES. 

0-5 1-20 

1- 0 0-93 

2- 0 0-74 

3- 0 .. .. .. 0-65 

5-0 0-54 

10*0 0-43 

18-0 0’35 

20-0 0-34 

25-0 0-31 

76-0 0-22 

The areas were taken from village maps of 8 inches to the mile and 
the discharges of the various nullahs were not calculated from sections 
or bedfalls, which were extremely variable. All cross drainage with but 
one important exception was designed to be passed either under or over, 
not through the canal, and there are no flush inlets or outlets of any 
significance. The result has been a great saving in initial cost of 
masonry works, and it has been unnecessary to consider the effect of 
heavy rainfall and full supply in the canal at the same time. There 
were in all 12 superpassages, 3 aqueducts, 25 culverts, and smaller cross 












142 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 

drainage works, amounting in all to 65 including weirs of tanks^ in the 
length of the main canal. The crossings of the nullahs were, as pre¬ 
viously stated, fixed so as to ensure good foundations and sufficient 
headway, though small nullahs were occasionally diverted in order to 
make one masonry work serve for two. The most important of these 
works were Edmarajdpuram surplus sluice in the 4th mile, Andipatti 
aqueduct in the 11th mile, and Shattiydr and Marangaliydr super¬ 
passages in the 19th mile. 

Edmardjapuram surplus sluice is situated at 3 miles 7 furlongs, close 
to the tank of the same name, and is designed for a catchment of 75 
square miles with a discharge of 10,688 cubic feet a second. It consists 
of 12 vents of 10-feet span and has a waterway of 1,200 square feet. 
The platform is 6f feet wide carried on 2 arches, 1| feet'deep and 2j 
feet rise, each 3 feet wide with 9 inches between them for a passage 
for the lifting gear, which is fixed at 20 feet above the sill. The 
shutters can thus be raised 10 feet and if they are not open a flush escape 
of 120 feet remains. The sills of the vents are 4 feet below the bed of 
the canal, and the shutters are 10 feet deep, so as to hold up a full 
supply of 6 feet in the canal. The bed of the canal is here pitched, 
and in rear of the surplus sluice are two cushion floors of cyclopean 
rubble in mortar. The total length of this work between abutments is 
164 feet. 

Andipatti aqueduct is at 10 miles 7 furlongs and is designed for a 
catchment of 14^ square miles, and a discharge of 4,300 cubic feet a 
second through the subterpassage. The length between faces of para¬ 
pets is 84 feet and between the ends of cushion walls 109. feet. The 
clear width is 72 feet, comprised in 3 arches of 24 feet span, 4 feet rise, 
and 2 feet thick at the crown. The intrados is plastered, but the 
extrados which forms the bed of the canal is unplastered. There is no 
drop wall, the cistern being cut in rock. 

The Marangaliydr superpassage is situated at 18 miles 7 furlongs on 
the main channel and is designed to pass a jungle stream rising in the 
Sirumalai hills which rise to 4,000 feet and are sparsely covered with 
jungle. The catchment area of the stream is 62 square miles. The 
original design has been found faulty, insufl&cient waterway ha ving 
been allowed for the stream, and on the 23rd August 1894 a flood came 
down spilling over the side walls and also causing a breach 70 feet 
wide in the left bank of the main channel. The rainfall that caused 


111.] 


PEKIYAR PROJECT. 


143 


the breach was, as far as can be ascertained, generally speaking, 
moderate (unless something approaching a cloud burst occurred in some 
part of the catchment area), and had been preceded by dry weather. 
The flood was mainly caused by a tank breaching and carrying several 
others below it in its course. 

The superpassage was originally designed to carry a flood discharge 
of 6,300 cubic feet a second, calculated as [follows :—D = C 
C = 430 ; M = the area of the catchment basin in square miles = 56. 
It is not known what was the actual flood discharge on 23rd August, 
but the discharge now allowed for is calculated on an area of 62 square 
miles by the above formula with the co-efflcient 0 = 700 ; therefore D 
= 10,962 cubic feet a second. It was originally reported that the 
Shattiar river crossing the main channel by a work similar to this at 18 
miles 3 furlongs spilled over its banks into the Marangaliydr which is 
at a lower level; but this has been denied by all the ryots owning lands 
between the two streams. The originally calculated M.W.L. is 588-56. 
The observed flood level is 59T72 and the calculated M.W.L. 593’56. 
The side walls and wings have accordingly been raised 3 feet. 

The superpassage now consists of a single segmental concrete arch 24 
feet span with a rise of 4 feet, the thickness at crown being 2^ feet. 
The side walls of the tunnel are 5 feet high and the floor (R L. 570'56) 
is sunk to 4 feet below channel bed. The maximum upward pressure 
on the arch is that due to a head of 10 feet and no spouting has been 
observed. Over the concrete is a layer of slab stones 6 inches thick. 
The drop walls in front and rear are semi-circular on plan, 14 feet high, 
2 feet wide at top and 5 feet wide at base, battered on the inside. The 
internal radius at base is 18 feet. The work is built throughout of 
coursed rubble coped with dressed stone, the side walls of the tunnel 
only having a base of concrete. The stone is a hard close-grained 
gneiss obtained by burning sheets of rock common in the district. The 
lime is got from nodular limestone The heading up of the channel 
has been inappreciable, as has also been the case in the other super¬ 
passages ; several culverts have, on the other hand, silted badly and 
given trouble. Where either can be used superpassages are eminently 
superior to undertunnels. 

The Marangaliydr stream is perennial, and this was the only 
instance in which steam pumping was required in the foundations. 


144 


HISTORY OP THE 


[chap. 


From reaches 5 to 12, both inclusive, the following dimensions were 
adopted for all superpassages, which were of the same general design :—^ 


Reach. 

Span. 

Height to 
springing. 

Rise. 

Area. 

NO. 

FEET. 

FEET. 

FEET. 

SQ. FEET. 

5 

24 

5 

4 

84 

6 

24 

5 

4 

184 

7 

24 

H 

4 

172 

8 

24 

H 

4 

172 

9 

20 


4 

163 

10 

16 

5 

3 

112 

11 

12 

4i 

3 

70 

12 

8 

5 

2 

51 


There are three regulators in the main canal at 7 miles 5 furlongs, 
at 27 miles 4 furlongs, and at 32 miles 4 furlongs. 

Regulators. which is much the most important, is 

at Ndchikulam tank and consists of 5 vents of 15 feet span, the arches 

springing from piers 7 feet above the floor and rising 2| feet. The 

shutters are 5 feet high and the maximum supply level is 8^ feet above 
the bed, and the discharge therefore with shutters down amounts to 
1,458 cubic feet a second, which is the maximum discharge in this 
reach. In case of necessity the waterway above the shutters can be 
closed with planks. The shutters do not run in grooves but on plane 
surfaces, as water-tightness is not essential, the only object being to hold 
water up and by forcing excess water over the weir of Ndchikulam tank 
to prevent floods from running down the canal. The shutters are 15 
feet by 5 feet with double 2-inch screws fixed 3 feet from the end of 

each shutter. The sliding surfaces are iron joists 7 inches wide and 3-^ 

inches deep, weighing 20 lb. to the foot run, built into the floor and 
into the arch ; and the shutters work on iron rollers of 9 inches diameter 
on 1^-inch axles, placed at 1 foot and 3 feet from the bottom of the 
shutter. 

The second regulator is built at 27 miles 4 furlongs at the end of 
the Pappank61am tank and is combined with a bridge giving 15 feet of 
roadway. The vents are three of 16 feet span, 7 feet deep to springing, 
with a shutter platform 5 feet wide. The shutters are 16 feet by 5 feet 
and are worked on the same principle as those of the Ndchikulam 
regulator. 












in.] 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


145 


The third regulator is a small affair of 3 vents of 6-feet span, the 
piers being 7| feet to springing. It is built at 32 miles 4 furlongs below 
Devimangalam tank and is worked with removable planks. 

There are four drops or falls in the main canal aggregating 21^ 
feet. The width of the canal was reduced from 82, 68-8, 15 amd 12 
feet, to 32, 30, 10 and 7 feet, respectively, at the drops, in order to 
maintain the depth in front at full supply level. All are sheer overfalls 
and the design is simple, needing no further description than a reference 
to the plan (Plate XYI). Where the drop is combined with a sluice 
on the upstream side there is inequality in the foundations, both in 
the main canal, and in the branches in which numerous drops occur, 
and in the result there have been instances of unequal settlement and 
parting at the junctions. 

The sluices on the main canal are not in any way unusual, the 
principal being the Vadagarai channel head sluice which consists of 
2 vents of 10-feet span, the pier and abutments 5 feet high to spring¬ 
ing and the arches 2 feet rise, with ordinary screw-gearing shutters. 
Below the sluice ten iron standards are set up in the main canal, in 
which planks can be fixed to turn all water down the Yadagarai channel 
when there is no Periydr water in the Yaigai. The general type of the 
sluices on the main canal is an arched vent or vents of small span 
with screw-gearing shutters, and a platform 4| feet to 6 feet above 
F.S.L. The barrels of the vents have 18-inch collars at 10 feet inter¬ 
vals to prevent creeps. From 6 to 9 feet of roadway is allowed between 
the parapets. 

A few general remarks will suffice to close the subject of the con¬ 
struction of these works. The highest floods in the Yaigai will occur 
in May or November, and full supply will be let into the main canal in 
June, July, August and September, so it is unlikely that both will occur 
at the same time. Cross drainage is, however, as previously observed, 
kept' out of the canal, and as a measure of precaution no account of 
the downward pressure from water in the canal is taken in calculating 
the efficiency of the arches of the aqueducts in resisting upward pressure. 
The Yaigai itself between May and September generally carries but 
from 10 to 150 cubic feet a second, the maximum observed during any 
year being 33,824 cubic feet a second on 8th November 1884, equiva¬ 
lent to a run off of 0-905 inches in 24 hours, from a catchment of 520 
square miles of hills and 870 square miles of plains. The platform of 

T 


HISTOEY OF THE 


146 


[chap. 


the head sluice has been built 3| feet above the maximum level of this 
flood. 

The foundations of the principal masonry works were nearly always 
on rock, very occasionally on hard clay or kunkur. The spans were 
usually 24 or 25 feet to economise centerings, but in small or low 
arches earth centerings were often used. The arches were generally 
concrete, but for spans of less than 7| feet slabstones were employed. 
The bricks in the neighbourhood were bad, therefore the masonry 
throughout was of coursed rubble or burnt stone in mortar, the rock 
throughout the country being a species of syenite or gneiss. The faces 
of the stones were chisel-drafted but rough at the back to bond with 
concrete in the case of voussoirs for arches. The lime, burnt from 
kunkur found in the vicinity, was of good quality, and the masonry is 
very solid and of useful appearance. The mortar was composed of 1 
part lime, sand, ^ surki, by measurement, and the concrete of 2^ 
parts of stone to 1 of mortar in archwork, otherwise of 3 of stone to 1 
of mortar. In archwork the concrete was laid circumferentially in 6- 
ineh layers and the top of each course was grouted. In the case of 
superpassages the floors were covered over the concrete with large 6- 
inch stone slabs laid diagonally. The centering was generally removed 
after a month, but sometimes after a half or even a third of that time 
without ill effects. Concrete was, on the whole, economical as compared 
with rubble masonry, since the masons of Madura, though of consider¬ 
able local reputation and undoubtedly clever stone-dressers, devour very 
nearly half the year in holidays. For this and other reasons large con¬ 
tracts were found inadvisable and nearly all the work was done by 
piece-work. The principal rates will be found in table II. 



IV.j 


PEEIYAR PROJECT. 


147 


CHAPTER IV. 


I rrigation—Total expenditure—Returns. 

In all large undertakings, such as the Peri jar project, the question 
of construction is but ephemeral. Vv hen the dust has cleared away, two 
much more lasting and important considerations arise—first, whether the 
work done will be of real utility to the country, apart from any direct 
returns; and second, whether the revenue arising from the work will 
represent a reasonable interest on the capital expended. The first question 
may readily be answered in the affirmative. In the opening chapter of 
this book, mention was made of the frequent, even constant, scarcity of 
water in the neighbourhood of Madura, and of the sufferings and expense 
that resulted therefrom. It is beyond cavil that the mere fact of pouring 
such a vast quantity of water as is represented by the Periydr river down 
the bed of the Yaigai and through the distribution canals must in itself 
be of inestimable benefit. The wells, the cattle, the crops, the pasture, 
the fish, must all feel the effects, which though not measurable in rupees 
are obvious and incontrovertible. From the standpoint of a just and 
humane Government, this is after all the most important aspect, and an 
aspect of particular importance in the Madura district. A large number 
of useful human beings are practically secure from want. The point is 
most noteworthy, though apt in criticism to be neglected. It need not 
here be further enlarged on. 

In the other question—that of returns—it is twenty years too soon to 
form an authoritative opinion. All that can be done is to tabulate the 
forecasts, to narrate the present progress, to describe briefly the obstacles 
and the encouragements that have so far made themselves manifest. 

In the year 1875, after considerable correspondence and previous 
investigation, the Government of Madras deputed the late Mr. H. F, 
Clogstoun to submit a complete report on the probable result from a 
financial point of view of the contemplated works. This report was 
submitted in a very thorough and exhaustive form in July 1876. Pass¬ 
ing over the indirect, but manifest advantages resulting merely from the 


148 


HISTOKY OP THE 


[chap. 


difference between irrigated and unirrigated land, Mr. Clogstoun divided 
his enquiry into three branches— 

(1) The classification and grain valuation of all Grovemment 
lands irrigable by the project, and a determination of the probable cost 
of cultivation of the same lands with rice, in .view to arriving at the 
surplus produce or profit^ available for division between the Government 
and the cultivator. 

(2) The determination of a commutation rate and an assessment 
which, while rendering the cultivation of rice so advantageous to the 
ryots as to ensure that irrigation shall be in great demand, shall yet 
give to Government a fund sufficient to guarantee a fair profit on any 
reasonable expenditure in providing this irrigation. 

(3) The selection from the whole area commanded of that land 
to which water may be most advantageously supplied, as also the area 
on which it may be advisable to permit the growth of second crop in 
preference to extending the area of single crop cultivation. 

The conclusion of the report treated of the probable length of time 
required to bring under wet cultivation the large area, 150,000 acres, 
which the channels are capable of irrigating, with a few remarks on the 
general state of the district and upon any circumstances connected with 
the customs or habits of the ryots or with the nature and quality of the 
lands of the district which might tend, prejudicially or otherwise, to 
affect the success of the project. 

Mr. Clogstoun’s report was the deciding factor in determining the 
Government of Madras to press for the prosecution of the work. The 
classification of soils was, in totals— 

AOEBS. 

]31ack clay .. .. .. .. .. 65 

Do. loam .. .. .• 46,482 

Do. sand .. .. .. .. 1,305 

Bed loam .. .. .. .. 20,172 

Do. sand .. .. .. .. 26,896 


Total 


93,920 


of which 44,374 acres was wet and 49,646 acres was dry. Of the land 
already wet 4,357 acres was inam, and of the dry land 3,400 acres. 









IV.] PERIYAR PROJECT. 149 

The grain valuation, the result of numerous experiments and a wide 
experience, was taken as follows, after a deduction of 20 per cent, for 
vicissitudes of season and allowance for waste :— 

MEASURES. 

Black clay, Ist sort .. .. .. .. 800 

Do. 2nd „ 720 

Do. 3rd .. 640 

Do. 4th „ 496 

Do. 5th ,, 496 

Black loam, 1st ,, .. .. .. .. 800 

Do. 2nd ,, .. .. .. .. 720 

Do. 3rd ,, .. .. .. .. 640 

Do. 4th „ 496 

Do. 5th ,, 496 

Black sand, 1st ,, .. .. .. .. 720 

Do. 2nd ,, .. .. .. .. 640 

Do. 3rd „ 560 

Do. 4th „ 496 

Do. 5th ,, 496 

Eed loam, 1st ,, .. .. .. .. 800 

Do. 2nd ,, ,. .. .. .. 720 

Do. 3rd ,, .. .. .. .. 640 

Do. 4th „ 496 

Do. 5th ,, .. ,. .. .. 496 

Eed sand, 1st ,, .. .. .. .. 720 

Do. 2nd ,, .. .. .. .. 640 

Do. 3rd ,, .. . 560 

Do. 4th ,, .. .. .. .. 496 

Do. 5th ,, .. .. .. .. 496 

the average of which per acre in an average year amounts to 672 Madras 
measures, an estimate considerably below the result of actual experi¬ 
ments in the same tract of country and much less than that of other 
districts under similar conditions. 

Mr. Clogstoun then proceeded to examine the rate at which the 

^ grain valuation should be commuted into a 
The commutation rate. ° , 

money valuation. He found that the average 

selling price of paddy in the Madura district from 1844 to 1864 was 

Es. 128-8-0 per garce, and from 1854 to 1874 Es. 181-10-0 per garce, 






















150 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


while the average price in the Madura district and the neighbouring 
Tinnevelly, Trichinopoly and Tanjore districts combined, from 1844 
to 1864 was Es. 123-9-0 per garee, and from 1854 to 1874 was Es. 
169-9-6 per garee. From these prices he deducted 15 per cent, as 
representing merchants’ prices, &c., and the sale price of the ryots 
became— 

RS. 

Madura, 1844 to 1864 .. .. .. .. 107 

The four districts .. .. .. . . .. 105 

Madura, 1854 to 1874 .. .. .. .. 154 

The four districts .. .. .. .. .. 144 

and he therefore adopted a commutation rate of Es. 120 per garee, which 
he considered well within the mark. It may be noticed that the com¬ 
mutation rate early in the century was fixed at Es. 60 per garee, 
showing a very great and growing increase. 

From the above rate a further deduction for cultivation expenses was 
necessary in order to fix a reasonable water-rate. This deduction Mr. 
Clogstoun fixed at Es. 10-8-6 per acre on the average, composed as 


follows:— 

. ES. A. P. 

Cost of implements .. .. ., ..100 

Do. of seed .. .. ;. .. ..100 

Do. of manure .. .. .. .. ,.180 

Do. of labour .. .. .. .. ..706 


Total ..10 8 6 


The average grain valuation being 672 measures per acre or 
Es. 25-3-2, the value of the net outturn per acre, allowing for vicissi¬ 
tudes of season, becomes very nearly Es. 14, of which it is usual to take 
half as the Grovemment assessment. 

Mr. Clogstoun then entered into an exhaustive consideration of the 
extra revenue to be expected, dividing the land for this purpose into 
three groups, according as it was at present irrigated by anicut channels, 
by korambu channels, or by rain-fed tanks, and deducting, of coimse, the 
existing assessment. The conclusions he arrived at were— 











IV.] 


PERIYAU PROJECT. 


151 



Extent. 

Total net 
value of extra 
assessment. 


ACRES. 

R8. 

First group ,. 

1,000 

15,328 

Second group .. 

4,000 

25,000 

Third group 

.. 75,878 

4,27,136 

Total 

.. 80,878 

4,67,464 


to which he added 15,210 acres of dry land in inam and zamindari 
villages, the water-rate on which would amount to Es. 91,260, the 
totals thus becoming— 

Expenditure of water equal to the irrigation 

of single crop .Acs. 96,088 

Extra assessment .. .. Es. 5,58,634 

Finally, Mr. Ologstoun then considered the question of second 
crop, his conclusions on which point are stated below. The general 
summary of the report was that a return might be looked for of 
Es. 4,67,374 from a total area of 93,000 acres, equivalent in its 
demand for water to an area of 80,878 acres, in Grovernment villages ; 
of Es. 91,260 from 15,210 acres of inam and zamindari land; and of 
Es. 2,15,648 for a second crop from 53,912 acres; making a total 
return of Es, 7,74,274 from an area of 150,000 acres of irrigation. 
Colonel Pennycuick considered that these estimates were moderate 
except in the one point of second crop, always an uncertain subject upon 
which to prophesy, and the Director of Eevenue Settlement in sub¬ 
mitting Mr. Clogstoun’s report proposed to reduce the estimated return 
on this account from Es. 2,15,648 to Es. 1,00,000. This, however. 
Colonel Pennycuick considered an error in the opposite direction, in 
view of the known anxiety of the ryot to get as much as possible out 
of his land and the certainty of water being available. He, therefore, 
estimated the return on this account at Es. 1,41,374, making a 
total expected return of Es. 7,00,000, In this total no account was 
taken of the sums to be realised by the sale of occupancy rights either 
of fresh land or of the beds of tanks to be abandoned, or of indirect 
revenue on account of fresh land taken up in place of existing dry 
converted into wet, although the project was debited with the assess¬ 
ment of existing cultivation, 







162 


HISTOKY OF THE 


[chap. 


The estimates of returns were accepted with some slight modifica¬ 
tions and were submitted to the Government of India in the following 
shape:— 


Description of land. 

Tar am. 

Estimated 
yield per 
acre. 

Irrigable 

area. 

Eate per 
acre. 

Revenue. 


NO. 

MAD. MEAS. 

ACS. 

ES. 

RS. 

Government 

1 

1,000 

16,431 

8| 

l,.^9,663i 

Do. . 

2 

900 

29,522 


2,21,415 

Do. ... ..i 

3 

800 

21,905 


l,42,382i 

Do. . 

4 

700 

5,849 

5i 

32,169i 

Do. . 

5 

620 

2,643 

5 

13,215 

Total .. 

• * 1 

... 

76,350 

... 

5,48,845i 

Tank-beds ... 


• •« 

9,196 

8 

73,568 

Usual wet inam ... 

. . ♦ 


4,356 

Free. 


Dry inam ... 

. . . 

*** 

3,400 

6 

20,400 

91,260 

Zamindari ... 

... 

... 

15,216 

6 

Total ... 

... 

... 

108,538 

... 

7,34,073i 

Deduct revenue due to 
old irrigation, average 
of ten years’ collections. 





1,52,598 

Net total ... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

5,81,4751 

Deduct area and revenue 
of land not advisable to 
irrigate nnder the pro¬ 
ject ... . 



7,538 


22,849J 

Net total ... 



101,000 


5,58,626 

Second crop ... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

1,41,374 

Total ... 

... 

... 

101,000 

... 

7,00,000 


The extent of unoccupied lands to be brought under irrigation was 
estimated at 35,998 acres, viz. :— 

ACa. 

Drylands .. .. .. .. .. .. 20,616 

Wet ,, .. .. .. .. .. .. 6,186 

Tank beds .. .. .. .. .. 9,196 

Total .. 35,998 

which should produce Rs. 46,122 as enhanced land revenue at Es. 1-4-6 
per acre, the average rate of dry assessment. 

These forecasts were accepted by the Government of India with some . 
modifications, and the figures of gross revenue were submitted to the 
Secretary of State for India as follows :— 








































IV.] 


PEEIYAR PROJECT. 


153 


RS. 

From 85,790 acres, Government land. 4,67,374 

From 15,210 acres, inam and zamindari lands .. .. 60,840 

From second crop irrigation . 1,00,000 


Total gross revenue .. 6,28,214 

Maintenance charges at Es. Ij per acre .. 1,25,400 

Net revenue 5,02,814 


The forecast of growth of irrigation and revenue receipts and charges 
was as follows : — 


Revenue Receipts and Charges. 


Year. 

Irrigated area. 

Gross revenue due to works. 

Direct and in¬ 
direct charges 

on revenue ac¬ 
count. 1 

Net revenue due 
to works. 

Direct re¬ 
ceipts. 

Enhanced 
land rev¬ 
enue. 

Total. 

Including 

enhanced 

land rev¬ 

enue. 

Excluding 

enhanced 

land rev¬ 

enue. 


ACS. 

RS. 

RS. 

BS. 

RS. 

RS. 

RS. 

Seventh. ... 

11,000 

57,580 

4,600 

62,180 

20,040 

42,140 

37,540 

Eighth 

21,000 

1,15,874 

9,200 

1,25,074 

40,080 

84,994 

75,794 

Ninth 

31,000 

1,74,164 

13,800 

1,87,964 

60,120 

1,27,844 

1,14,044 

Tenth ... 

41,000 

2,32,454 

18,400 

2,50,854 

80,160 

1,70,694 

1,54,294 

Eleventh ... 

51,000 

2,90,745 

23,000 

3,13,745 

1,00,200 

2,13,545 

1,90,545 

Twelfth ... 

61,000 

3,49,038 

27,600 

3,76,638 

1,05,440 

2,71,398 

2,43,798 

Thirteenth. 

71,000 

4,07,330 

32,200 

4,39,530 

1.10,280 

3,29,250 

2,97,050 

Fourteenth. 

81,000 

4,65,621 

36,800 

5,02,421 

i;i5,320 

3,87,101 

3,50,301 

Fifteenth... 

91,000 

5,23,913 

41,400 

5,65,313 

1,20,360 

4,44,953 

4,03,553 

Sixteenth... 

101,000 

5,82,214 

46,000 

6,28,214 

1,25,400 

5,02,814 

4,56,814 

Seventeenth 

101,000 

5,82,214 

46.000 

6,28,214 

1,25,400 

5,02,814 

4,56,814 

Eighteenth. 

101,000 

5,82,214 

46,000 

6,28,214 

1,25,400 

5,02,814 

4,56,814 


The above figures were compared with the forecasts of expenditure 
on works, together with the loss by exchange and the price proposed to 
be paid to the Travancore Government, and an estimate of annual profit 
was thereby formed. The three items named, however,’subsequently 
imderwent great alterations, and it would be useless]^ here to set down 
the calculations as submitted to the Secretary of State for India with 
the plans and estimates in 1884, and sanctioned in the same [year. 

The works, in course of construction, were visited by Sir Charles 
Elliot, then Public Works Minister, in 1890, when a certain amount 
of actual experience had been gained, and at his instance further infor¬ 
mation was compiled and some of the figures reconsidered. It was 
decided to deal with the different classes of lands to be benefited by the 
project as shown in the subjoined abstract. 


u 
























154 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


I. Evotwar occupied lands— 

(1) Dry. —For first crop a water-rate of Es. 5 per acre and 

for second crop Es. 3. At the next revision of assess¬ 
ment the whole to be placed in first group wet and 
treated as double crop lands. 

(2) Wet. —To he charged first group wet assessment. For 

second crop 50 per cent, of the first crop assessment 
to be charged pending revision. 

II. Ejotwar unoccupied lands including tank-beds— 

These lands to be converted into first group wet and charged 
a consolidated assessment for two crops, with the exception 
of one-eighth of the area believed [to be incapable of 
supply for second crop. 

III. Minor inams— 

(1) Dry. —To be charged water-rate at Rs. 5 per acre for 

first crop and Es. 3 for second crop, and no charge 
made in revision. 

(2) —No additional charge for first crop, but for second 
crop half the assessment at first group rates. 

IV. Whole inams and zamindaries.—No water available for dry 

lands or first crop on wet lands, but during second crop 
season Rs. 3 charged on about 8,000 acres. 


The financial results, according to these principles, would be as 
follows:— 


Nature of land. 

First crop. 

Increase. 

Second 

crop. 

Increase. 

Total. 

I. Ryotwar occupied— 

(1) Dry . 

(2) Wet . 

ACS. 

27,440 

43,446 

RS. 

1,37,201 

93,919 

ACS. 

13,720 

21,723 

RS. 

41,160 

52,428 

RS. 

1,78,361 

1,46,347 

II. Ryotwar un-ocoupied 
including tank-beds. 

33,744 

2,15,048 

29,526 

94,355 

3,09,403 

III. Minor inams— 

(1) Dry . 

(2) Wet . 

4,847 

5,041 

24,236 

2,424 

2,520 

7,271 

5,437 

31,507 

5,437 

IV. Whole inam and 

zamindari. 


... 

8,000 

24,000 

24,000 

Total ... 

114,518 

4.70,404 

77,913 

2,24,651 

6,95,055 













ly.] 


PBKIYAE PEOJECT. 


155 


From this it will be seen that the forecast of land under second crop 
was considerably augmented. It was, at the same time, decided not to 
sell waste lands by auction, the preferential right of the ryots of a 
village to the occupation of the waste land within it being admitted; 
but tank-beds were placed on a different footing and were to be sold by 
auction, the amount to be realised from this item being estimated at 
Ks. 6,41,133. 

In all the forecasts two elements of doubt necessarily existed, namely, 
the cost of the works and the acreage that would be irrigated. By 1894 
the former had been practically removed and the figures were finally 
revised as follows :— 


Summary of Capital Expenditure. 

Land corapeneation .. 

W orks— 

Other works 


ES. 

1,43,469 

61,82,531 


Total .. 63,26,000 


Establishment 
Tools and plant 

Less receipts on capital account .. 


.. 14,01,000 
.. 7,57,000 

13,000 


Net total 84,71,000 


Summary of Indirect Charges on Capital Account, 

ES. 

Capitalized abatement of land revenue. 82,500 

Leave and pension allowances .. •• •• 1,96,500 


Total . * 2,79,000 












ary of growth of Irrigation and Revenue Receipts and Charge 


156 


HISTORY OF THE 


[chap. 


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IV.] 


tERIYAR PROJECT. 


157 


The figures in column 7 include the payment of Es. 40,000 annually 
to Travancore, and the collection charges at 5 per cent, on revenue. The 
working expenses are estimated at 12 annas per acre on ultimate first 
crop area. The total amounts to 6'38 per cent, on the total amount of 
estimate, instead of 8'92 per cent, as previously anticipated. 

The revised estimate of net financial results was prepared in 1893 
before the works were finished, but the difference between the revised 
estimate and the actuals of expenditure was too slight to materially 
affect the figures :— « 

Estimate of Net Financial Results. 


Year. 

Direct 

capital 

outlay. 

Interest 
at 4 

per cent. 

Net 

revenue. 

Simple 
interest 
less rev¬ 
enue. 

Net rev¬ 
enue less 
simple 
interest. 

To end of— 

ES. 

RS. 

RS. 

RS. 

RS. 

1892-93 . 

50,82,141 

4,68,665 


4,68,665 


1893-94 . 

64,25,658 

2,30,156 


2,30,156 

... 

1894-95 . 

74,70,658 

2,77,926 


2,77,926 


1895-96 . 

82,00,658 

3,1.3,426 


3,13,426 


1896-97 . 

84,71,000 

3,33,433 

10,681 

3,22,752 


1897-98 . 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

62,136 

2,76,704 


1898-99 . 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

1,13,591 

2,25,249 


1899-1900 . 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

1,65,046 

1,73,794 


1901-2 . 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

2,16,501 

1,22,339 


1902-3 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

2,84,956 

53,884 


1903-4 . 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

3,53,411 


14,571 

1904-5 . 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

4,21,866 


83,026 

1905-6 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

4,90,321 


1,51,481* 

1906-7 . 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

5,58,776 


2,19,936 

1907-8 . 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

5,58,776 


2,19,936 

1908-9 . 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

5,58,776 

... 

2,19,936 

1909-10 . 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

5,58,776 


2,19,936 

1910-11 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

'5,58,776 


2,19,936 

1911-12 . 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

5,58,776 


2,19,939 

1912-13 . 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

5,58,776 


2,19,939 

1913-14 . 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

5,58,776 


2,19,936 

1914-15 . 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

5,58,776 


2,19,936 

1915-16 . 

84,71,000 

3,38,840 

5,58,776 


2,19,936 

Total ... 

... 

80,61,566 

82,65,045 

24,64,895 

26,68,374 

Deduct ... 

... 


... 


24,64,895 

Net surplus revenue ... 





2,03,479 


It now only remains to narrate briefly the advance of irrigation so 
far as it has at present proceeded. The area commanded consists of 
existing first-class irrigation, and of second, third, and fourth,—of waste 
■—of dry cultivation—and of the beds of abandoned tanks; and one of 
the first difficulties that arose lay in the fact that Government land was 






























158 


HISTOEY OF THE 


[chap. 


in many cases divided or even cnt off by inam and zamindari land, the 
proprietors of which showed great reluctance either to use the water 
themselves or to allow channels to pass through their property. By the 
terms of their tenure they reaped no direct benefit from the spread of 
irrigation, though the ryots who held under them of course would do so, 
and though they also suffered no harm they were unwilling to lend 
countenance to an improvement in which they saw no personal profit. 
The point of view was comprehensible but from it arose the necessity of 
much tact and persuasiveness to arrive at an amicable settlement, and a 
consequent delay in the expansion of irrigation. Some of the inamdars 
held out for a guarantee of permanent supply which of course could not 
be given, and others seemed to think that if the channels passed through 
their lands they would be able to take water without detection and 
without payment, or that if they held out the water would be given at 
a lower rate. The situation is by no means unique and is but one of the 
many reasons for the passing of an Irrigation Act. It is at present 
being arranged to bank the channels running through lands and tank- 
beds belonging to inamdars who refuse to take the water, and there 
seems no doubt that they will finally agree to allow their tenants to 
make use of it. 

The custom of the Madura ryots has hitherto been to §ow their first 
crop in October for the north-east monsoon and reap it in January, a very 
much smaller and more hazardous second crop being afterwards sown in 
February to be reaped in April. The Periydr water is however avail¬ 
able in June and if used from then onwards is likely to run dry in 
March, necessitating a complete reconstruction of the habits of the 
people. In so conservative a race this is sure to take a considerable 
time, but it has already been done in a few isolated cases. There is 
necessarily a danger nevertheless that they will utilise the Periydr 
water, but under the old system, and if the rain comes late, at the end of 
November or beginning of December, their crops (which will then be 
nearly ripe) run the risk of being damaged. This is a difficulty which 
will set itself right in time. A more serious obstacle is the poverty of 
the country, which prevents the extension of irrigation on land hitherto 
dry and diminishes the second crop on customary wet lands. It is not 
a grazing country and is very devoid of trees, so that both leaf and 
animal manure is scarce, nor have the ryots capital or enterprise enough 
to remedy the defect by importing manure. This seems a case for 
the application of agricultural loans, and it would also probably be 


PERIYAR PROJECT. 


159 


lY.] 

eventually profitable for the Grovernment itself to become an importer of 
manure on a small scale in order to make its utility clearly manifest. 
Loans might also be usefully employed in enabling ryots to entertain 
the initial cost of converting dry land into wet. These views have 
already been accepted by the G-overnment and it has further been 
suggested to allow a 50 per cent, reduction in water-rate for the first 
throe years and 25 per cent, for the second three in all cases of conver¬ 
sion of dry to wet, and a remark has previously been made of the inten¬ 
tion of the Government to dig free of cost all distributary channels 
irrigating more than 50 acres. Owing to the nature of the country 
these channels are far more difficult to lay out and costly to excavate 
than in delta districts. Long stretches of unoccupied and of inferior 
rocky or gravelly land have to be passed through by these channels, and 
until the water is brought close to the ryots and the supply shown to be 
reliable, it is too much to expect them to be forward in demanding it. 
This policy is therefore being actively pursued by the Government at 
present, and the result so far is distinctly encouraging and considerably 
in advance of the forecast. During the year 1896-97, the first year of 
settled supply, 50,106 acres of occupied wet were irrigated and 7,2U3 
acres of second crop and of inam and zamindari lands, witli 1,217 acres 
of new first crop and 5,225 acres of new second crop, the revenue 
amounting to Es. 2,66,480, of which Es. 2,31,348 must be deducted for 
existing assessment; and there seems no reason whatever to believe that 
the expansion will not be normal and uniform. The only contretemps 
has been the jamming of the sluices at the head of the tunnel, which 
has rendered it impossible to preserve any excess water (of which there 
was a large quantity) for the dry months of March, April and May. 
The loss is naturally under present circumstances of no moment, and 
arrangements have been made to substitute a Stoney’s patent shutter at 
an early opportunity. 

There are over 1,000 tanks in the Madura and Meliir taluks affected 
by the Periydr channels, and pending further knowledge of the 
Periydr in a bad monsoon it would be rash to at once abandon such as 
are economically maintained, the more so that with complete utilisation 
of the water it is doubtful if a full supply would be available for more 
than two months after December even in a good monsoon ; and in that 
case water stored previously in tanks would be very useful in March and 
April. Many tanks catching ordinary rainfall have therefore been 
retained, small and shallow tanks being generally abandoned, though 


160 


HISTOEY OF THE 


[chap. 


exceptions have here and there been made in favour of some that were 
favourably situated for flood regulators or distributing reservoirs. Out 
of 320 tanks in the Madura taluk 80 have been for the present retained. 
The rest only irrigate 5,858 acres in all and have an area of 3,189 acres, 
of which over 2,000 can be cultivated. The loss of storage will be 16 
per cent., which will be partly recouped by drainage running direct to 
other tanks. In Melur taluk nearly aU the tanks are small and shallow 
and only 47 have been retained which will be reduced by amalgamation 
to 41. The sale of occupancy rights in the beds of abandoned tanks 
should produce a considerable sum. To fit them for cultivation the 
surplus works have been breached and the surplus channels deepened 
where necessary. 

The branch channels and minor distributaries amount in aggregate 
length to * miles and * miles, respectively. A sluice or distri¬ 
butary has generally been placed between every two large nullahs, the 
course being usually on the crests of ridges; but deep and difficult 
excavation has been found unavoidable in some cases, and in others 
depressions have had to be crossed in which the channels have had to be 
heavily banked and the bed puddled. The average duty of water was 
taken at from 22 to 66 acres per cubic foot per second, according to the 
size of the channel, and in estimating the discharge a loss amounting to 
from 1 to 1 cubic foot a second was allowed for evaporation. The 
fall of the country being severe many drops were found requisite, and a 
bedfall of 6 feet per mile had generally to be adopted, 2 feet depth of 
water only being allowed so as to reduce the velocity. The character¬ 
istics which militated against easy distribution however enable the 
drainage of the country to be performed without any difficulty. The 
land commanded is bounded on the north by the main canal and on 
the south by theVaigai river, between which all irrigation is conducted, 
so that a ready natural outflow for the drainage is provided. The total 
culturable area, according to a recent careful estimate, is— 


Government land commanded by main canal and acs. 

branches .. .. .. .. .. .. 80,816 

Whole inam and zamin wet land .. .. .. 17,471 

Lands under Ohittanai .. .. .. .. 1,474 

Total .. 99,761 


* Not yet complete. 





IV.] 


peeiyIr project. 


161 


The retention of a number of tanks accounts for the deficit of 722 
from the original estimate made by the Public Works Department, and 
the subsequent estimate made by the Revenue Department was far from 
correct. Should the water in the Periydr be found capable of irrigating 
more, the tunnel can be widened and irrigation readily extended on the 
south bank of the Vaigai, but in that case a new head sluice and 
distribution system will have to be constructed. It is, however, at 
present too early to enter into any examination of such a prospect. 


X 



APPENDIX. 


A SLIGHT reference is necessary to the possibility of utilising the Periydr 
water for the development of power. After leaving the tunnel the water 
flows in the bed of a torrent down the side of the hills before it reaches the 
comparatively flat country of the Cumbum valley, and there is an available 
fall of some 900 feet in a length (measured along the bed of the stream) 
of about 6,800 feet. The question of the utilisation of this fall was referred 
in 1893 to a committee consisting of Colonel J. Pennycuick, Professor 
George Porbes, Professor W. C. Unwin, and Professor W. C. Roberts- 
Austen. This committee submitted an encouraging report, together with a 
list of the objects on which the power could be employed. These objects 
were— 

Manufacture of carbide of calcium. 

Manufacture of aluminium. 

Electric traction on railways. 

Cotton mills. 

Electric lighting. 

In 1897 a pamphlet was issued by the Government of Madras, giving 
the report of the committee in detail, together with a note by the Chief 
Engineer for Irrigation, and calling for tenders for the purchase of the 
right of developing and utilising the power. Up to the present moment 
no tenders have however been received, and it seems improbable that 
there will be any immediate demand for the concession. 




Table showing Monthly Quantities put into the Main Dam above zero leveL 


APPENDIX 


163 


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Head works. 


164 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE II.— Bates. 


Rates for Mortar, Main Dam. 


< 


KS. A. P. 


parak surki powder .. «. .. .. 0 5 0 

2 paraks slaked lime » .. .. .. .. 160 

3 ,, river sand .. .. .. .. 0 3 0 

Mixing 4 paraks mortar obtained from fore¬ 
going .. .. .. .. .. 080 

Supervision and sundries .. . ♦ .. #. 0 2 0 


For 4 paraks .. 2 8 0 


For 1 parak .. 0 10 0 


Rates for Concrete, Main Dam. 

ES. A. P. 


100 cubic feet stone quarrying and stacking .. 6 8 0 

Carriage to stone-breakers .. .. .. 18 0 

Breaking to 2^' gauge .. .. .. .. 5 0 0 

Carriage to dam .. .. .. .. 040 

18 paraks mortar as above .. .. .. 11 4 0 

Mixing and ramming .. .. .. .. 6 4 0 

Carpenters, &c. .. .. .. .. .. 100 

Supervision and sundries .. .. .. .. 0 4 0 


For 100 cubic feet .. 32 0 0 


Rates for Uncoursed Rubhle Masonry, Main Dam. 

RS. A. p. 


100 cubic feet stone quarrying and stacking .. 6 8 0 

Carriage to dam .. .. .. 180 

18 paraks mortar as above .. .. 11 8 0 

Building (piece-work) .. ,. .. ,. 9 8 0 

Supervision and sundries .. .. .. .. 18 0 


For 100 cubic feet .. 30 4 0 


For cement add .. 47 0 0 


Note. —These rates are normal, but do not agree with the average for the main 
lince much of the latter was very costly owing to difficult situations, 



























APPENDIX. 


165 


TABLE II.— Rates— 


Rates for Excavation. 


o3 


f Blasting 
Drilling 
Carpenters .. 
Carriage of materials 
Removing spoil 
Smiths 
Turbine 
Extra for lead 
Contingencies 



14'36 lb. gelatine 
2'11 coils fuse 
11'2 detonators 

Stores 
Timber 
Steel .. 


Rates for Explosives. 


For 90 cubic feet = 1 foot run .. 


KB. 

0-56 

4- 53 
0-29 
0-16 

5- 59 
1'60 
0-31 
1-40 
0-24 


21-28 

1- 27 
0-52 

10-00 

2- 31 
0-25 


14-58 


23-07 


12-56 

50-21 


Note.—T his does not include prime cost of machinery or turbine channel, or 
reservoir. 


Rates for Exccwation. 





6 


CD 

Pi 



CD 

QQ 


Blasting .. 

Drilling .. 

Removing spoil .. 

Smiths .. .. .. 

Maintenance of machinery 
Carriage of materials .. 
Carpenters 
Extra for lead 
Contingencies 


ES. RS. 

0-54 

11-54 

10-00 

2-04 

0-49 

0-12 

1-08 

2-50 

1-18 

- 29-68 





























166 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE II. —Bates— 


Ratet for Explosives. 


^13-80 lb. gelatine 
2'33 coils fuse ., 
10-41 detonators ., 


rd 


Fuel 

Timber 


d 

d 

s 

H 


® ^ Stores 
o 


Steel 


For 90 cubic feet = 1 foot run 


BS. 

20-09 

1- 38 
0-49 

17-80 

2- 31 
10-00 

0-26 


Bi. 


21-96 


30-36 


82-00 


Note.— This does not include prime cost of machinery or commnnications. Hand 
power about the same as above. 


Rates. 


''Blasting ., 

Baling 

Carpenters 

CooKes 

Drivers and stokers 
Smiths .. •. 

Fuel 

Timber 

Steel . 

Eemoval of rock (piece--vrork) .. 


L 


Total 


ES. 

2-15 
8-00 
4-00 
.. 3-00 

.. 4-35 

.. 4-26 

4-00 
2-00 
2-26 
.. 80 to 90 


114 to 124 per 1,000 

cubic feet. 


Rates for Transport of Limestone, 

ES. A. p. 

Eopeway up ghat per 100 cubic feet ., 3 4 0 


Canal, 6 miles ,, ., .. .. 4 4 0 

Quarrying and carting, 8j- miles to canal. 16 8 0 

Do. Do. 14 miles to kilns.. 27 8 0 


Hote. —The baling refers to hand baling only. The engines were applied to both 
pumping and raising spoil. 























APPENDIX. 


ler 


TABLE II. —Disteibdtion Works, 
RaUi of Labour or Material. 



RS. 

A. 

p. 


1 

" 15 

0 



Maistry .. .. .. .. ^ 


to 

1 

^ per mensem. 

1 

. 25 

0 

oj 


1 

r ^ 

8 


1 

Stone-cutter .. .. .. \ 


to 

1 

^ per day, 

1 

L 0 

12 

oJ 

Cooly man .. 

0 

4 

0 per day. 

Cooly woman 

0 

2 

0 

do. 

Cooly boy .. 

0 

1 

6 

do. 

Picottab man 

0 

4 

0 

do. 

Bullocks (pair) 

0 

12 

0 

do. 

Burnt stone, quarried and stacked 

8 

0 

0 per 100 cub. ft. 

1 

r 30 

0 

01 

1 

Stone slabs, roughly split.. .. \ 

! 

to 

1 

do. 

1 

L 50 

0 

oJ 

1 


ri25 

0 

0" 

1 

Palmyra rafters .. .. .. 

1 

to 


) per 100. 

tl75 

0 

0. 

1 

Yengai wood 

2 

8 

0 per cub. ft. 

Clearing light jungle 

0 

2 

6 

„ 100 sq. ft. 

Clearing prickly-pear .. .. «• 

0 

2 

6 

„ do 

Blasting rock 

5 

0 

0 

,, 100 cub. ft. 




(solid). 

Earthwork .. .. .. ^ 


0 

to 

0^ 

1 per 1,000 cub. 

1 ft 


L 6 

0 

0. 



r ® 

0 

O'] 

1 

Earthwork in stony ground .. -j 

1 

to 


do. 

1 14 

0 

oJ 

1 

Puddle wall . 

2 

2 

0 

per 100 cub. ft. 

Turfing, including watering 

0 

8 

0 

,, 100 sq, ft. 

1 

^ 14 

8 

01 


Concrete .. .. •. .. i 


to 

1 

^ per 100 cub. ft. 

1 

. 16 

0 

oJ 


Brickwork, in clay 

10 

0 

0 

do. 

Brickwork, in mortar 

21 

0 

0 

do. 










168 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE II.— Disteibution Works — cont. 


Rates of Labour or Material —cont. 


Ashlar, in mortar .. 

Coursed rubble, in mortar 
Coursed rubble, in mortar, archwork 
Hubble revetment .. .. .. ,. 

Plastering .. 

Pointing 
Whitewashing 
Tiled roofing 

Teakwood, wrought and put up, small .. 


E8. 

A. 

p. 



1 

0 

0 

per 

1 cub. ft. 

20 

0 

0 

M 

100 cub. ft. 

23 

0 

0 

? > ^ 

do. 

10 

8 

0 

? J 

do. 

2 

8 

0 

J? 

100 sq. ft. 

1 

8 

0 


do. 

0 

4 

0 


do. 

14 

8 

0 

?> 

do. 

3 

8 

0 

J) 

1 cub. ft 


TABLE III. 

List of Floating Plant. 

1 steam-tug, 60-H.P. 

1 „ 35.H.P. 

1 „ 15-H.P. 

1 oil launch, 8-B.H.P. 

1 floating, 400-ton, Priestman’s steam dredger 

1 ,, 100-ton, locally-made ,, 

2 50-ton wooden barges. 

4 20-ton steel barges. 

13 35-ton wooden barges. 

11 30-ton ,, 

8 20-ton ,, 

4 15-ton ,, 


•4 










APPENDIX 


169 


TABLE IV. —Bain Begisteb. 








1888. 






Day of 
month. 

January. 

February. 

March. 

April. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

August. 

September. 

October. 

November. 

December. 

1 





•60 

1-10 

•75 

•37 

•33 


•30 

•35 

2 

... 

... 


... 

•90 

•85 

•75 

•01 

•02 

... 

•62 

•35 

3 

... 

... 



•75 

2-20 

... 

1-05 

•08 

... 

•24 

•90 

4 




... 

•80 

•90 

•45 

•10 

... 

•10 

•24 


5 

... 

... 



1-40 

1-75 

•25 

•50 


... 

•50 


6 




... 

no 

1-20 

1-00 

•07 

... 

. .. 

... 


7 




... 

•70 

1-80 

1-40 

•20 

•02 

• .. 

•.. 


8 



•12 

... 

•40 

2-10 

3-50 

•35 

. . . 

... 

1-00 


9 

... 


•05 


*95 

1-70 

1-85 

•05 

... 

•75 

•13 


10 



1-85 


•75 

•80 

1-25 

•24 

. . . 

... 

•70 


11 



•57 

•75 

1-20 

1-05 

*55 

•38 

•97 

... 

•73 


12 


... 

... 

•85 

•40 

0-75 


•30 

... 

•03 



13 



... 

•60 

•60 

2-10 

•05 

... 

1-47 

... 



14 

... 



1-05 

1-30 

•80 

•12 

... 

•13 

1-07 



15 


... 


•60 

•15 

•90 


•26 

•37 

. .. 

. .. 


16 




•75 

2-5 

•70 

•25 

•04 

•43 

•09 

• •• 

2-05 

17 



. . . 

•75 

. . . 

no 

•15 

•02 

... 

•18 

.. . 


18 

... 



•95 

... 

•70 


•25 

1-90 

•07 



19 




... 

... 

•60 

•02 

•35 

•10 

. . . 



20 

... 

... 


•25 

•75 

•20 

... 

•20 

... 

•23 



21 

... 

... 


... 

•80 

•05 

•05 

•75 

... 

•26 



22 

... 

... 

... 

... 

•70 

... 

•05 

•85 

1-35 


... 


23 


... 

... 

•40 

•90 

*05 

•27 

•10 

•76 

. .. 

• •• 


24 

. . . 

... 


•55 

. .. 

... 

•45 

•02 

•15 

. . . 

• .. 


25 


... 

... 

•85 

. . . 

•18 

•24 

•05 

•56 

•13 

... 


26 

... 


... 

•35 

... 

•40 

*15 

•12 

•08 

•23 

•84 


27 

... 

... 


•65 

... 

1-90 

•18 

•14 

•04 

1-33 



28 

... 


... 

•35 

. . . 

•68 

•15 

•16 

•25 

•20 

•15 


29 

... 

... 

... 

'35 

•15 

•64 

•55 

•07 

•38 

'53 



30 

... 

... 

... 

•45 

•20 

•13 

•45 

•50 

•20 

•23 



31 

... 


... 

... 

•30 


•15 

•05 

... 

•25 

... 


Total f or 
month 

V_ 

... 

... 

9-75 

.17-25 

2 / *q3 

14-28 

"V- 

7-55 

9-59 

5-68 

5-45 

3-65 

_ / 


Total for 1888 • ... 100-73 


T 


































































170 


APPENDIX 


TABLE IV. —Rain Register— eont. 



1889. 

Day of 
luontR. 

January. 

February. 

March, 

April. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

August. 

September. 

October. 

November. 

December. 

1 





•35 

•80 

•15 

•20 


9 

•04 



2 


... 

•28 

... 

•20 

... 

•25 

•50 

. . . 

•17 

• •• 

... 

3 




•20 

... 

•80 

•05 

... 

•80 

•08 

1-30 

... 

4 


... 


•60 

•50 

•60 

•10 

•20 

•07 

•36 

•57 

... 

5 

... 




•85 

•15 

•20 

•30 

•18 

•11 

... 

... 

6 

... 

... 



... 

. . . 

•25 

•45 

•05 

•33 

•11 


7 

... 




. . . 

•85 

•35 

2-55 


•03 

•28 


8 




•80 

•65 

•30 

•15 

1-15 

... 

•03 

... 


9 

... 

... 



•35 

•20 

•45 

•50 


•40 

... 


10 

... 




•60 

•60 

•25 

•45 

... 

•06 

... 

... 

11 

... 

... 



•55 

•25 

•30 

•15 

1-50 

•12 

... 


12 




... 

. .. 

•25 

1-60 

•10 

•08 

•25 

... 


13 




... 


•05 

•05 

•15 

•52 

•94 

... 

... 

14 




... 

. . . 

•55 

•05 

•15 

•14 

•84 

•59 

... 

15 

... 



... 


*50 

•90 

•20 

•24 

1-52 

•53 


16 


... 


... 

. . . 

•45 

1-70 

•25 

1-28 

1-40 

... 


17 ... 


... 


... 


•30 

1-50 

•70 

1-15 

1-84 

•31 


18 


... 


... 

•55 

1-30 

1-70 

•85 

2-20 

1-69 

•14 

•07 

19 

... 



... 


1-25 

2-05 

•65 

1-51 

•20 

•34 

3-15 

20 

... 

•55 




•50 

... 

•40 

•39 

•10 

•01 

•20 

21 

... 

•27 


... 


•30 

. . . 

*65 

CO 

... 

• •• 

•11 

22 

... 


2-19 

•50 


•25 

•05 

•80 

•05 

^ -09 

• •• 


23 (rf-) 


•43 


... 

... 

... 

... 

•55 

•20 

•05 

... 


24 




2-55 


. . . 

•15 

*05 

•25 

• . . 

... 


25 




2-30 


... 

. .. 

•10 

•02 

... 

•42 

• •• 

26 

... 

... 


300 


•35 

•70 

•90 

•02 

... 

•25 


27 




210 


•25 

•25 

•65 

•10 

... 

•04 

... 

28 



•20 

•80 

•63 

•65 

•15 

•15 

•20 

... 

... 

... 

29 


... 

•02 

•15 

... 

•25 

•25 

•20 

•02 

. . . 

... 

. .. 

30 


... 

•04 

•50 


•05 

•05 

•10 

•01 


. ... 

... 

31 



•04 

... 


... 

•05 

•10 


... 

... 

... 

Total for 
inonth.j 


1-25 

2-77 

14-20 

5-23 

11-80 

14-15 

14-15 

11-35 

10-65 

4-89 

3*53 

/ 

1 

1 




Total for 1889 ... 

93-97 








































































APPENDIX 


171 


TABLE IV. —Rain Register — cont . 


Day of 
month. 

1890. 

January. 

February. 

1 

March. i 

April. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

August. 

September. 

October. 

c, 

0) 

rQ 

a 

(D 

> 

O 

December. 

1 






! 

•16 

•20 

•22 

•01 


•36 


2 


... 

■18 

. . . 

. . . 


... 

•16 

... 

... 

•04 


3 


... 

•13 


... 

•32 


•08 

•01 

•08 

•15 

•05 

4 



•44 


... 

. . . 

... 

•85 

•06 

•18 

•20 

•02 

5 


.*• 

•11 



•15 

... 

•41 

•36 

•02 

•01 

•24 

6 



•19 



•05 

... 

■34 

•20 


•07 


7 ... 


... 

*15 

... 

... 

... 

•10 

•35 

•07 


•05 

... 

8 



•05 

•13 

... 

... 

■30 

1-50 

•02 

•01 


... 

9 

*50 


•04 

•24 


•20 

•25 

•38 

•04 

•09 

•72 

... 

10 



•09 


. . . 

•14 

•08 

•20 

•69 

•95 

•04 

... 

11 


. .. 

■. * 



•25 

•25 

■19 

'05 

•51 

•02 

•01 

12 



.. . 

... 


•21 

•18 

•17 

•40 

•08 

•07 

•01 

13 



. . . 

. . 

... 

•41 

•24 

•13 

■28 

•08 

•02 

... 

14 




1-15 

•05 

•99 

•52 

•02 

•20 

•36 

... 

... 

15 




1-15 

•05 

1-12 

*54 


•14 

•47 

•04 

... 

16 



1-10 

•37 

. . . 

•47 

•02 


•19 

•41 

•01 


17 




... 

... 

1'55 

•09 

•04 

•15 


... 

... 

18 



•04 


•04 

•70 

•22 

•01 


•04 

... 


19 



... 

■35 

•53 

•52 

•16 

•10 

... 

•32 


... 

20 



• •• 

•25 

. . . 

... 

1-34 


... 

... 


... 

21 


» •. 

... 

•72 

... 

... 

1-83 

•02 


•30 

... 

•02 

22 



. •. 

•15 

•07 

1-06 

1-11 

... 

•05 

•65 



23 




1-39 


•31 

1-00 

•09 

•06 

•12 

•01 

... 

24 


•39 

• . . 

* .. 

... 

•04 

•70 

•21 

•09 

•24 

... 

... 

25 


•22 

... 

•12 

•02 

... 

•09 

•13 

•01 

•35 

... 


26 


•20 

»»• 

•15 

. . . 


•56 

•04 


•78 

... 


27 


... 

... 



•24 

•48 

•05 

•05 

1-53 

... 

... 

28 



•18 

1-50 

•37 

•33 

•02 

■02 

•17 

2-43 


... 

29 



... 

. •. 


•61 

•10 

•26 

•01 

•14 

•13 

... 

30 



... 



•07 

1-01 

•11 

... 

•20 

•40 

... 

31 





... 

... 

•21 

... 


•24 

... 

... 

Total for 

•50 

•81 

2-70 

8-16 

1-53 

9-90 

11-60 

5-58 

3-31 

10-58 

2-33 

•35 

month. 

















-- -y- 

Total for 1890 

57-55 
































































172 


APPENDIX, 


TABLE IV.— Eain Eegibteb— cont . 



1891. 

Day of 
month. 

January. 

February. 

March. 

April. 

w 

cd 

June. 

July. 

August. 

September. 

October. 

November. 

December. 

1 






*45 

00 

•15 

•04 

•57 



2 

... 

•03 

• • . 

. .. 

. . . 

•14 

•84 

•15 

•09 

•64 

1-01 

... 

3 


•03 


. .. 

•02 

•60 

•75 

•50 

•35 

•36 

1-51 

... 

4 


•02 

. . . 

. .. 

■06 

•93 

•80 

•46 

•30 

•53 

•75 

... 

5 

. . . 

•02 



.. . 

•41 

•45 

•09 

•14 

•13 

•56 

... 

6 

... 

•04 


•40 

•11 

•45 

•67 

•03 

•49 

•09 

•12 

... 

7 

... 

•01 

•17 

•19 

. . . 

•16 

•09 


•03 

•31 

... 


8 



•04 

•30 

•05 

•65 

■06 


•04 

•06 

... 

... 

9 

•01 


., . 

•70 

•06 

2-55 

•09 

... 


•01 

... 

... 

10 

. . 


... 

•20 

•06 

•77 

... 

■10 

•01 

•03 

•84 

... 

11 

. . 

•10 

... 

... 

•01 

1-22 

•14 

•10 

... 

•60 

•40 

... 

12 


•44 

•29 

•20 

•12 

•92 

•15 

•13 

... 

•73 

•04 

... 

13 


•02 

•11 

. . . 

.. . 

1-82 

•10 


•23 

•20 

•40 

•18 

14 


•28 

•14 

. . . 


•05 

•06 

... 

•05 

•49 

•12 

•08 

15 


•19 

•12 


•09 

... 

•44 

•01 

... 

•11 

•60 

... 

16 


•09 

ri5 


•10 

... 

•58 

... 


•59 

•40 


17 ... 

... 

•03 

•29 

1-45 

•15 

•16 

•10 


... 

•21 


... 

18 




•01 

■10 

. . . 

... 

•02 

•07 

•42 

... 


19 

. .. 



. . . 

•54 

•11 

•67 

•09 

... 

•28 

... 

... 

20 

•05 

•05 

. .. 

. . . 

•41 

•14 

1-94 

•17 

... 

•90 

... 

•03 

21 

•10 

•13 


•07 

•40 

•05 

1-28 

•13 

... 

•82 

... 

•07 

22 

... 

•04 


•25 

•26 

•10 

1-96 

•27 

... 

•77 

... 

... 

23 

.. . 

•12 

... 

•19 

• . • 

•54 

1-40 

•84 

... 

•40 

... 

... 

24 

.. . 

•05 


•02 

•04 

•29 

•53 

•19 

... 

... 

... 

... 

25 

... 



•11 

•11 

•16 

•50 

•53 

... 

•23 

... 

... 

26 




•10 

... 

•10 

■24 

•22 

... 

•20 

•33 


27 

... 

. . . 


•08 

•05 

•03 

1-00 

•03 

•01 

•46 

... 

... 

28 


. . . 


1-01 


•15 

•77 

•10 

1-01 

... 

•04 

... 

29 



... 

•06 

•04 

•53 

•36 

•07 

... 

•67 

•01 

... 

30 


... 

... 

•11 

•16 

•50 

•22 

•63 

... 

•06 

. . « 

... 

31 





... 

... 

•15 

•08 


•73 

... 

... 

Total for 
month. 

•16 

V_ 

11-69 

2-31 

5-51 

2-94 

13-92 

17-12 

5-09 

1-85 

12-60 

7-13 

0*36 

j 






Total for 1891 .. 

70-68 





































































APPENDIX 


173 


TABLE IV. —Rain Register— cont . 


Day of 

month. 





1892. 




1 

January. 

February. 

March. 

*U 

<1 

May. 

c 

p 

July. 

August. 

September. 

October. 

November. 

December. 

1 






•35 

1 

•26 

•02 

•21 



2 

... 


... 

... 

... 

•38 

•38 

•11 


•09 

... 

•02 

3 

•01 

« .. 



•02 

•65 

•20 

•10 

•01 

•14 

... 

. . . 

4 

• •. 

. . . 


. .. 


... 

•45 

•44 

•01 

•09 

•15 

. . . 

5 

. . . 



. .. 

. . . 

•07 

... 

•33 

•01 

•50 

•01 

... 

6 

.. . 

.. . 

. .. 

... 

•13 

•35 

... 

•32 

... 

... 

... 


hr 

t 

. . . 


. .. 

. . . 

... 

•70 


•73 


•06 

•95 

... 

8 





. .. 

1-55 

... 

•27 

•01 

•02 

•12 

. . . 

9 

. .. 

... 

... 

•82 

•38 

1-86 

... 

... 




... 

10 

, . . 

... 


•44 

... 

1-09 


•21 

•11 

... 

•03 

... 

11 

. . . 

... 



... 

•13 

... 

•02 

•07 


... 

... 

12 


•01 

•01 

•90 

. .. 

. . . 

... 

■05 

•08 

•30 


... 

13 


•05 

•05 

•07 


.. 


•04 

•15 

•44 

... 


14 

. . . 

•01 

•01 

•54 


... 


•06 

*05 

•09 

•08 


15 


•01 

•01 

•06 

. .. 

... 


•11 

... 

•07 

•02 

... 

16 

• • . 






5^l6 

*15 

•03 

•02 



17 


. . . 

... 




•11 

1^05 


•84 


•47 

18 

... 

. . . 


•03 

. . 

... 

•05 

•11 

•03 

•33 



19 






... 

•24 

•01 

•09 

•13 


•01 

20 

... 

. .. 

... 

• .. 



1-45 

•25 

•04 

•19 


... 

21 

».. 

. .» 

... 

•. . 

.. . 


1-67 

•38 

•05 

•53 

•01 


22 

. •. 



'61 

. . . 

... 

1-93 

•57 

■01 

•90 



23 




1-92 

•04 

... 

1-21 

•13 

•07 

•11 

... 


24 

• . • 


... 

•27 

•37 


7^26 

•64 

•02 

•18 

... 

... 

25 

. » 

. .. 


•13 

•20 

•90 

•81 

•35 

•06 

•08 


... 

26 


• • . 



•58 

•88 

1-09 

•20 

•07 

•34 



27 

... 

•02 

•02 



... 

•51 

•08 

•48 

•02 

... 


28 

. . . 

•30 

•3C 

... 


... 

•25 

•48 

•30 

•40 

... 


29 

. . . 

•03 

•03 


. . . 

... 

•17 

•08 

•18 

•13 

... 

... 

30 

.. . 

. . . 


. . . 

•42 

... 

•10 

•16 

•44 

•06 


... 

31 

... 

... 



•46 


•37 

•01 


... 


... 

Total for 

•01 

•43 

•43 

5-69 

2-57 

8-91 

23-41 

■ 7-60 

2-39 

6-27 

1-37 

•50 

month 






























Total for 1892 . 

. 59-58 




% 


















































































174 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE IV.— Bain Eeqister— cont . 







1893. 

* 




Day of 
month. 

January. 

February. 

March. 

April. 

1 

June. 

I 

; July. 

August. 

September. 

October. 

N ovember. 

December. 

1 



•07 


•06 


•60 

3-05 

•18 

•27 

•13 


2 



•10 


... 

•40 


1-20 

•01 

... 

•38 


3 



... 


... 

•27 

•15 

•80 

•01 

•15 

... 


4 





... 

•17 

•08 

•85 

•35 

•65 

... 


5 


... 

•15 

... 

*55 

•31 

•25 

•55 

•47 

•21 

•15 


6 


. . . 

•28 

•08 

ro9 

•43 

•09 

•12 

•44 

•12 



7 ... 


... 

•02 

•02 

•15 

•02 

•25 

•45 

•09 

•13 

•41 


8 



... 

•27 

1-15 

•41 

•62 

•22 

•27 

•43 

*66 


9 

•10 

... 



•20 

1-24 

... 

•17 

•09 

•16 

•60 


10 





•07 

2-41 

•10 

... 

•22 

•12 

•41 


11 





•06 

1-31 

•23 

... 

•43 

•27 

•10 


12 



... 


... 

•48 

•25 

•02 

•53 

•16 

•06 


13 


... 

... 

... 

... 

•38 

... 

•15 

•30 

1-75 

•33 


14 




... 

•85 

1-02 


. . . 

•32 

1-09 

•45 


15 



... 


•10 

1-82 

•25 

... 

•12 

•61 

•38 


16 


... 

... 


... 

3^80 

•50 

•04 


•36 

•15 


17 

•65 

... 


... 

•35 

1^65 


... 


•87 

•15 


18 

•06 

•01 


... 

•32 

... 

•05 

•13 

... 

•01 

■03 


19 

•07 

•01 




... 

•28 

•15 

... 

•05 

•01 


20 

. . . 

•03 


. . . 

•02 

•45 

•19 

•17 

... 

•03 

... 


21 

... 

•81 


•25 

•07 

•95 

•10 


•04 

•40 

... 


22 

... 

•55 

•05 


•09 

•50 

•04 

•15 


•17 

•12 


23 

... 




•05 

... 

•07 

•23 


... 

•03 


24 

... 

•02 

•08 

... 


•35 

•29 

•08 


... 

... 


i 

25 

... 

•04 

... 


•66 

•70 

•82 

•40 


•86 

•35 


26 

.. 

•31 

•11 

*.■ 

•45 

•48 

•16 

•09 


•13 

•08 


27 

... 


•12 

... 

•34 

•10 

•74 

•09 


•89 

•44 


28 



... 

... 

•40 


1-12 

•16 

... 

•05 

... 


29 




... 

■24 


1-00 

•13 


•16 

... 


30 

... 

... 

... 


■12 

1-03 

•35 

•19 

... 

'15 

... 


31 


... 


... 



•80 

•08 

... 

... 



Total for 
month 

•88 

V _ 

1-78 

■91 

•71 

7-39 

12-66 

8-88 

9-67 

3-87 

10-25 

5-33 

J 





Total for 1893 .. 

62-33 










































































APPENPIX, 


175 


TABLE IV. —Eain Eegistbe— cont. 






















































176 


APPENDIX 


TABLE IV. —Eain Ebgister— 



1895. 

Day of 
month. 

Jannary. 

February. 

March. 

April. 

May. 

June. 

"3 

August. 

September. 

October. 

November. 

December. 

1 







3-50 

•33 

•08 

•27 

1-45 


2 



... 

... 

. .. 

. .. 

•25 

•24 

•35 

•04 

•84 

... 

3 




. .. 

. . . 

... 

•05 

... 

•05 


1-42 

•38 

4 




•35 


... 

1-CO 

•05 

•04 


•62 


5 




"45 

•10 


•10 

•32 


... 

•94 


C 




•20 

•05 

... 

•25 

•08 

•02 

•08 

1-05 


1 




... 

. .. 

1-00 

•05 

•03 

•02 

•04 

•08 

... 

8 




... 

•45 

... 

•50 

1-49 

... 

•35 


... 

9 




•02 

... 


•30 

•64 

•05 

1-18 

. . . 


10 




•22 

... 

... 

1-00 

•10 

■05 

. . . 

•01 


11 




•80 

•. • 

1-45 

•80 

•02 


. . . 



12 




1-15 

. . . 

•70 

•10 


... 

•27 


... 

13 




2-10 

1-25 

•60 

•60 

•85 

... 

•10 

... 


14 




•05 

•65 

ro5 

•80 

•16 

•05 

•23 



15 




. . . 

... 

•05 

•08 

•14 

•20 

•12 


... 

16 





•50 

•25 


•02 

•31 

•12 



17 ... 





. . . 

•90 

•12 


•11 

•19 


... 

18 





... 

3-05 

•22 

1-06 

... 

I'Ol 


»•* 

19 




1-60 

.. . 

4-50 

•05 

•08 

•04 

•05 

... 


20 




•05 


4-55 

•94 

•10 

•14 

•39 

•02 


21 




•15 

•03 

2-40 

•64 

•56 

•25 

3-62 



22 




•12 

•10 

ri5 

•07 

•63 

•13 

•30 


... 

23 




•05 


•63 

•08 

•17 

•01 

1-00 

•01 

... 

24 




... 

... 

•07 

•34 

•35 


•60 


... 

25 ... 




• •• 


•43 

•27 

•45 

. . . 

•14 

... 

... 

26 ... 




•35 

... 

•35 

•54 

•06 

•09 

•01 

... 


27 ... 






•12 

•20 

•25 


•27 

... 

•05 

28 ... 




•90 


•60 

•74 

•07 

■43 

•04 

• •• 

•30 

29 




... 

•55 

•50 

•67 

... 

1-36 

... 

... 

•90 

30 




... 


•73 

•10 

•12 

•61 

•21 

... 

1-08 

31 




... 

•25 

... 

•25 

•31 

... 

•09 

... 


Total for 
month. 


... 

... 

8-56 

3'93 

25-08 

14-59 

8'68 

4-32 

10'72 

6-44 

2-71 

j 




Total for 1895 

85-03 





























































APPENDIX. 


177 


TABLE V. 


Average, Maximum and Minimum Discharges during each month 
from July to February. 


Month. 

Cubic feet per second. 

Average. 

In four seasons. 

1869-70. 

1870-71. 

1871-72. 

1872-73. 

Mean. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Ju^ ... 

1,085 


2,980 


2,032 

13,110 

522 

August 

1,235 


864 

1,195 

1,098 

7,272 

425 

September ... 

842 

... 

812 

1,266 

973 

5,845 

425 

October 

857 

1,341 

941 

582 

931 

7,644 

347 

November 

6,205 

1,525 

1,531 


3,088 

127,129 

404 

December 

1,212 

554 

689 

. .. 

818 

12,874 

311 

January 

680 

1,207 

335 

. . . 

741 

‘ 12,994 

270 

February 

342 

372 

311 

... 

342 

731 

200 


TABLE YI. 


Estimate of Rainfall in the Periydr Valley. 


Month. 

Average recorded rainfall at 

Average depth run off 
from Periyar catch¬ 
ment, 1868—72. 

Estimated rainfall at 
1-8 depth run off. 

Depth 
run off. 

Rainfall, 

Cochin. 

-- 

Trivandrum. 

1 

Angustermally, 

Average. 

j 

To give the dis¬ 
charges entered 
in column 4 of 
Table VII. 


INCHES. 

INCHES 

INCHES. 

INCHES. 

INCHES. 

INCHES. 

INCHES. 

INCHES. 

January 

0-34 

0-56 

6-23 

2-38 


2-92 

5-26 

2-86 

5-15 

February ... 

0-65 

0-39 

2-28 

1-11 


1-54 

2-77 

1-15 

2-07 

March 

1'93 

1-91 

3-18 

2-34 


... 


1-24 

2-23 

April 

5-30 

5-48 

7-41 

6-06 


... 

... 

2-15 

3-87 

May 

13-34 

8-87 

30-66 

17-62 



... 

5-74 

10-33 

June 

28-05 

11-84 

28-64 

22-84 


... 

... 

7-17 

12-91 

July 

22-47 

8-28 

30-96 

20-57 


7-81 

14-06 

7-17 

12-91 

August 

12-77 

6-11 

21-86 

13-58 


4-22 

7-60 

4-16 

7-49 

September. 

8-48 

4-44 

16-46 

9-79 


3-63 

6-53 

3-59 

6-46 

October 

12-63 

10-05 

26-04 

16-24 


3-29 

5-92 

3-16 

5-69 

November. 

4-32 

5-56 

15-58 

8-49 


11-34 

20-41 

7-17 

12-91 

December ... 

0-88 

1-52 

9-72 

4-01 


3-18 

5-72 

3-01 

5-20 

Total ... 

111-16 

65-01 

199-02 

125-03 

... 

... 

48-57 

87-44 

























































178 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE YII. 


l^sthnafe of Water availahle for Irrigation. 


Mouth. 

Average discharge as 
gauged, 1868-72. 

Discharge from 300 
square miles, f of 

the depths in col. 5 

of Table VI. 

Estimated discharge. 

1 

Loss by evaporation 

Balance available for 

irrigation. 

On Periyar 

lake. 

In beds of 

Siirfili and 

Vaigai. 

Millions of cubic feet. 

January 

2,020 

921 

2,000 

150 

100 

1,750 

February 

836 

430 

800 

180 

90 

530 

March 

... 

905 

900 

220 

90 

590 

April 

... 

2,346 

1,500 

220 

... 

1,280 

May ... 

... 

6,822 

4,000 

180 

t 690 

3,230 

J une ... 

... 

8,844 

* 4,000 

110 

80 

3,810 

July . 

5,440 

7,965 

* 4,000 

80 

100 

3,820 

August 

2,941 

5,259 

2,900 

110 

100 

2,690 

September 

2,525 

3,791 

2,500 

150 

90 

2,260 

October 

2,294 

6,288 

2,200 

110 

80 

2,010 

November 

8,002 

3,287 

6,000 

110 

80 

5,810 

December 

2,193 

1,553 

2,100 

120 

90 

1,890 

Total ... 

... 

48,411 

32,900 

1,740 

1,490 

* 1 

29,670 


* The discharge during these months will exceed 4,000 millions of cubic feet, but 
a portion may be lost by discharge over the escape. 

t 500 millions are allowed for filling the beds of the SuruH and Vaigai rivers. 




























( 179 ) 


INDEX. 


A 

Accidents, 127. 

Alignment, of main canal, 140. 
Alignment, of tunnel, 102. 

Andipatti aqueduct, 143. 

Anicuts, 130, 138. 

B 

Blasting, 101. 

c 

Caldwell, Sir James, 9. 

Canal, 50. 

Carpenters, 36. 

Cement, 69. 

Chinna Muliyar, 10. 

Cholera, 84, 125. 

Compensation, 33, 131, 134. 
Compressors, air, 100, 103, 112. 
Concrete, 43, 47, 115, 147. 

Construction, of canal, 53. 

Construction, of head works, 34. 
Construction, of main dam, 60. 

Control, of water, 16, 17, 22, 71, 73. 
Coolies, 35, 65. 

Cost, of distribution works, 131. 

Cost, of headworks, 110. 

Crops, 150. 

Cultiration, expense of, 151. 

Culvert, escape, 15, 17, 22, 73, 84, 86, 87. 

D 

Dam, earthen, 11, 13. 

Dam, in canal, 53. 

Dam, main, 60. 

Dam, masonry, 14, 19. 

Dam, temporary, 16, 26, 61. 

Discharge, of main canal, 139. 

Discharge, of river, 23, 26, 129. 


Discharge, of tunnel, 104, 130. 
Distribution works, 131. 

Drains, left bank extension, 94. 

Drains, of distribution works, 141, 161. 
Drills, 37, 101, 103. 

Drillers, 37. 

Drivers, 38. 

Dynamite, 127. 

E 

Earthen dam, 11. 

Electrical firing, 100. 

Error in tunnel, 102. 

Escape, 17, 21. 

Escape, right bank, 95. 

Evaporation, 130, 161. 

Excavation, 77, 97. 

Explosives, 97, 101, 126. 

Extension, left bank, 90. 

P 

Famine, 7, 15. 

Fan, 48, 102. 

Fernando, Mr. P., 36. 

Fever, 10, 117. 

Fitters, 38. 

Floating plant, 169. 

Floods, in canal, 55. 

Floods, in Periy4r, 61, 66, 69, 73, 78, 79, 
80, 95. 

Floods, in Vaigai, 146. 

Foundations, of distribution works, 147, 
Foundations, of locks, 53, 

Foundations, of main dam, 60. 

Fuel, 46. 

Fuse, 100. 

Q 

Gelatine, blasting, 100. 
delignite, 97. 

Grain, valuation of, 150( 





180 


INDEX 


H 

Health, 117. 

I 


In&m land, 152. 

Investigations, Periy6,r, 8. 

Irrigation, 6, 130, 148. 

J 

Jorisdiction, 33, 111. 

L 

Labour, 35, 111. 

Leaks, 44, 76, 89. 

Lease, 33. 

Lime, 19, 39, 47, 112, 144. 

Loans, agricultural, 159. 

Locks, 53. 

Logan, Mr. B. E., 38. 

M 

Machinery, 20, 27, 29, 39, 47, 58, 66, 99, 
103, 105,113, 117. 

Madakdlani, 5. 

Madura, district, description of, 5. 

Main Canal, 139. 

Maistries, 35. 

Marangaliyar, superpassage, 143. 

Masons, 36. 

Masonry, 42, 115, 147. 

Materials, 29, 39. 

Mattaparai tank, 141. 

Measuring weir, 104. 

M61ur, 5, 161. 

Mortar, 42, 47, 147. 

Muliapanjan, 17, 28. 


W 

Nellayoor channel, 5. 
Nachikdlam tank, 141, 145. 


P 


Pioneers, let and 4tb Madras, 36. 

Power, development of, 163. 

Preliminary investigations, 10. 

Pressure, on dam, 19, 25. 

Progress, of main dam, 164. 

B 

Railway, 31, 51, 112. 

Rainfall, Cumbum valley, 6. 

Rainfall, Madura, 6, 142. 

Rainfall, Periyakulam, 6. 

Rainfall, Periyar, 8, 73, 128, 170. 
Eamarajapdram tank, 141, 143. 

Rate, commutation, 150. 

Rates, 113, 131, 165. 

Regulators, 145. 

Reservoir, turbine, 99. 

Revenue, 152. 

Rice, 111, 124, 149. 

Eight bank escape, 95. 

Road, to dam, 31, 51. 

Road, to tunnel, 99. 

Ryves, Major E.E., his description of the 
Madura district, 5. 

Ryves, Major R.E., proposals, 10.- 

s 

Sand, 41, 48. 

Sand bags, 55, 63, 64, 78, 80. 

Sanitation, 117. 

Section, of dam, 32. 

Shafts, 103. 

Shattiyar superpassage, 143. 

Silting process, 13. 

Sites for dam, 13, 18. 

Smith, Mr. R., proposals, 13. 

Soils, classification of, 149. 

Springs, 77, 94. 

Stone, 39, 47. 

Stone-breakers, 47. 

Superpassages, 143. 

Surki, 41, 48. 

Sui’tiliyar, 130. 


Pappankulam tank, 145. 

Pennycuick, Colonel R.E., proposals, 16. 
Peranai, 6, 130. 

Periy&r, river, 8* 


T 

Tank beds, sale of, 152, 156, 160, 
Tenkarai channel, 5, 





INDEX 


181 


Timber, 46. 

Traction engines, 29, 61. 
Tramway, 102. 

Transport, 29, 50, 57, 112. 
Trestles, 64. 

Trial pits, 77. 

Tunnel, 13, 17, 27, 97, 130. 
Tunnel sluices, 105 
Turbines, 47, 57, 99, 102, 112. 
Turbine channel, 99. 

V 

Vadagarai channel, 6, 146. 
Vaigai river, 5, 98, 130, 138. 


Vairavan&r, 98, 130. 

Ventilation, of tunnel, 102, 103. 

W 

Water, drinking, 123. 

Water, quantity in river, 128, 
Water-rate, 149. 

Watershed cut'ting, 17, 27, 97. 
Weir, measuring, 104. 

Wire ropeway, 30, 47, 61, 57, 112. 
Workshed, 47. 

Z 

Zemindari land, 152. 















^pVILAM PATTI 


IRCTTAN 


TADAQAVUN DAN PATTI 


ALAGAPURI I 


4th. Reach 


PUDUPPATTJ 


KALLANAI | ' T 
□ / ' I 

ka^malapatti.^'H 


•AKUU 


JRUMBAi 


TAmCHlYAI 


vittangulamP', 

'AIRAVANATTAmP, 


SIRUVALAI 


sholavanoan 


sittalaIgudi □ 


pi;_laiyarna' 


3 KUMARUi 


' DKILANEDUNGULAmVcs 


•UDAKUDin 


TIRUYEDAG, 


TODANERl 


' KALLIKUDH > 

/ vi • 

•AMAYA NALLUR v t 


TENUR n 


O PODUMBU 


P mulakaran, 


koyilpappakud/, 


■O paravai 


PANAlfui 


Xt^GUDI 


■A;n‘ANERj 


PILLAIYARNATTAJwID 




flj • —“ • 

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« r. Ramarajapuram 

n ^ c 

>/ ' V i/ I ■♦i t> • 


/N 


y NAOtt^J.KULAM 

< AYANKURUV.-n^.RW 

KOVIL KURUV lTTURAlP'“''v ^ ^ 


S'"" 

AnPANN^ 


REFERENCE 


River&Channel 


Tank 


)v_SILI'YANERI 


Government Wet 


Inam Lands 


Government Dry 


Drainage Lines 


Road 




Keg: No. 4628 
Copies 410 






















































PLATE NO. HI 


PERIYAR PROJECT 

MADURA DISTRICT 

SIXTH CIRCLE 


Map Shewing the Periyar main & branch 
Channels with important Villages, Roads. 
Zemins & Inam lands 



a TUMBAPP/yfri 


PULIPPATTIQ 


'' -1 O 


MALAMPA' 


ILAVALAVU 


KlDARIPPATTl 


n VALLALAPPATTtn 


klLAVALAVI 


LAM PATTI 


l^lNIPPATTIs 


IRYAKKARAIPATTI '6 


ARITTAPPATTlQ 


9th7^^fe 
3'Reach-,* r 

KALLANOIRI 


KALLAMPATTI 


TAWrYA, 


^GALAM 

SATTAMANQALAM 


□ MANGULAM / 


iyapattI 


AKUNDAM 


BOMMINAIKKANPATTl 


VANMAMp)eAIPA^TTI 




tuyya?^ 


orangampattidV ^ 


□ PADINETTANGUDI 


/ VELLALAPPATTI 


qalattur 


AYALANGUDI,-^ 

TAMARA!PATTl'’n. 


Q-PUDUPPATTL 


KURIcMlPATTf 


D-KOTTAKUOI 


MARUI^R' 


PULAfyiPATTl; 




WnG; 


iRANPATTT' 


(AKKUDl 


KO^AKULAM /^piraKKUR • 


TIRUKKAN-I 


Dnaliwcula M 


RAJAKEMinRAM' I 

TlRURflUGuVc 


□ TIRUVADUR 


.IpANAlKUL^fl' 


TANGU 


/ELANDAIKULAM 


IOAIYAPATTI 


TINDIYUR □ 


ITALLAKULAM: 


RAJAKKURD 


'APP^KUDIq 


varichiyurI 


'punjut; 


iGULAM 


n SENQOTTAI h 


ANANJIYUR 


SCALE OF MILES 
2 


Miles 


Furlongs 8 

u 




s: N 


□ MELAVALAVU 

I N 

_ I ^ 




ARPATT 

1 W 


-PULANGULAmV/^ 

! L 


□ vandiyur 

I 


KOLIKKUDia 


KUNNATURn 


n SAKKiMANGALAM^ ADTU'^APi 


- 




KIRANUR I 

o : 


D ANGADIMANG'ALAM 

I 


Wioto-Print, Survey Office Madras 
1898 . 




y 





































































•iSS'OOfA ,,, A 


+ 155*00 



+ 0*00 




Reg! No. 5089 
Copies. 410 






























PLATE.IV 


I 



Photo- print .Survey Office, Madras. 
1899 









‘|20“ 280 12 


A B 


Reg: No. 4631 
Copies 410 


Datum'tine Bed ofPerivar at site of dam 






























PLAN AND SECTION of WATERSHED TUNN EL 


SCALE FOR SURVEY 
AND HORIZONTAL SCALE FOR SECTION 

100 0 10O 200 300 400 600 eOO 700 800 BOO 1000 1100 12001300 14001600 1600 17001800 1000 


10 0 10 20 30 40 60 60 70 80 60 100 110 120 180 140 160 160 170 160 1B0 

VERTICAL SCALE 

CONTOURS AT ISiFEET VERTICAL INTERVALS 

NOTE. FIGURES SHEW LEVELS ABOVE THEBEDOF THE PERIYAR AT SIT OF DAM 
WHICH IS 2837.36 FEET ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL 



3O - 

60 ^ao'- 



feet above mean Sea Level 


Photo-PrinU Survey Office Madrasi 

1898 














































































































plate no. VI 


Lifting gear as originally proposed 

% 

I cale-of Feet 

I 2Q 30 40 50 Feet 



• SECTION ON C. D 



SECTION ON E;F. . 




Photo-Print Survey Office^ Madras. 


1898. 













































RIGHT BANK 



0- 


REG : NO. 4633 A 
COPIES 410 


1»*00 























PLATE NO. VII 


15ECTION ALONG CREST OF DAM AND ESCAPE 































SECTION NO. 1 
c- 190 



NO. 5 



REa* H 
copies 


ino 55 
OO) CO 
































PLATE NO. VIII 





PHOTO-PRINT SURVEY OFFICE, MADRAS. 


1899 


I 





















Reg: No. 4634 
Copies 410 



























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































jnVrVv 






































































































PLATE NO.IX 

SHEET II 


PERIYAR 

SCREEN FOR SLUICE. 





SPACING OF RODSi DETERMINED 


Inches 


- 3 


Feet 


ENLARGED VIEW OF SCREEN 

Scale 

I f 


Photo-Print Survey Office, Madras. 
1899 






















































HALF PLAN AT TOR 


OLD WORK 




^OCK AT BOTTOM d 


-m - 


i: 






111' M 

- 

■ '' • 

• 


'' 

iJmanI 

~HPUE 
L T 







■jnn 








,-9-6 - 


m 


'I // I 

<-3-6;* 
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't'' 


6-ft 


CQ 


.<0 


;l6-.0 EEzzi EHz: 






OLD WORK 


NBW WORK HERETO BE BONOEi; 
INTO EXISTING MASONRY AND ROCKj 



22NQRwiA 

• J * 

'00 iCD 

1 i I 


m 





HALF PLAN AT BOTTOM \ 
SECTION ON A. A 


IN SURKI' MORTAR 


THE DIMENSIONS OF THIS RECESS HERE 
GIVEN ARE APPROXIMATE THE MASONRY 
must be MADE TO SUIT THE IRON WORK 


|RA1UNG TO BE 


9 FROM EDGE 


+ 156 • 25 


PLAN . 
OF i 

PERIYAR HEAlilL 


Scale of F 



.1. SILL LEVEl^ 106-76 


Reg: No, 4634 
Copies 410 


























































































































































































































































































































































































PLATE NO.IX 

SHEET 111 


* ft I 

-- 6-9- ^ 


- 16-0 




HALF SECTION ON D. D. 

WORK HERE TO BE BONDED 
IN TO EXISTING MASONRY AND AT 


I 


SECTIONAL ELEVATION ON B. B. B-B. 

I 



+ 156-25 


LUICE 


20 FEET 


ft’ PLAN 
E SILL 
39*02 
3STINQ 


+ 127 • 00 

BELOW THIS PORTLAND 
CEMENT MASONRY 


+ 122*00 


+ 106-75 


11^0 - 


I 

I 

I 


ROCK TO BE BENCHED AS HERE 
SHOWN WHERE EVER MASONRY 
RESTS ON. IT 


REFEREN CE 





Rubble in Portland Cement 
Dressed face stone in Do, 
Archwork cut stone in Do. 
Rubble in surki Mortar 
Old work 
Wood work 


SECTION ON C.C. 



Phroto-Print SurVBy Office, Madras. 
1898 



















































































































































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Q 



CC 

< 

CC 

u 

CL 



li 

uJ 


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iPLAN A. B. 



iPLAN C.D. 

RING omitted) 


SECTION E.F.G. 



Reg: No 4635 
Copies 410 





























































































































IRPLUS TUNNEL SLUICE 



PLATE X 
SHEET 2 


SOCKET ‘FOR PILLARS 



SET SCREWS 


He -5^-h| 

iSol44'to'thi® iNo. 96ito thi»* 


-'/Vf 


BOLTS 




No 160 to this No 72 to this 


s 


No 192to,this 


LIFTING SHACKLE 
I NT NO. 4 




Photo-Print Survey Office, Madras 

1898 


z °N ,.I^-J)g-I <>^g|d peg T -M I 









































































































































































PLAN OF 







V. 


Reg: No. 4636, 
Copies 410. 


































































































































































































































PLATE NO.Xl 


T BANK EXTENSION. 



-I 

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Note-The Drain at, A, w.5S Gauged on 19-11-95,and the 

discharge found to be 32 Cubic inches per second. 
This quantity is almost entirely accounted for by a 
spring which is situated about the point marked R 
on plan. ' 



Photo-Print., Survey Office, Madras, 


1898 . 

























































































































































































































































































































LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF PERI' 


3 

W 


3 

(/) 


•a 

X 


3 

O 

u 

</) 

■o 


c 

c 

X 

o 

:a 


a> 

tt 

•o 


CQ 

<8 




ni 

\ ^ 

(A 


O 

3 


X 

O 

u 


u 

c 

3 


N 



CQ 

E 

o 

o, 

"S 

L. 

3 

““ 

3 

(0 

0 

a 

c 


a 

a 

vs 

■a 

<Q 

> 


3 

(A 


E 

(Q 

K 


■o 

X 


rst Reach 


Top of existing banlc+629'62A,+ 

Pull suddIv Level 4 ,623*62»>- 


4 

.^,ir6l4-85 4 


4- 


% 

Existing bed level +-6I7-62«^ 



'*■615-801 

— 

+605-11 <0 

605-11 

V N 

•603-16 to 

"^-eoa-i.^ 

0 

6 

6 

0 

0 

Rariiarajar'O 


604*1 S% 
0 

Nachikuiamo 



z 

Z 

z 

Z 

•puram ^ 


Z 

Tank 


CO 

o> 

(0 

CO 

CO* 

Tank w 


CO 

CO 


6 


6 

0 | 

d 

ti 


0 ’ 

cj 



Patum 600 + 
Canal Mileage 


m'iis 2 Miles ^ 3 Miles u)^Miles ^TmUss jj6 Miles\ 7 Miles g 8 Miles 9 

- o 2 cj ffl ™ 


Top of existingibank + 59l'82-(^ 
Full supply Level +58S’82-*-‘ 
Existing.bed level + 579'82*^ 


Datum 500 + 
Canal Mileage 



a 

§ 


Miles 22 Miles 23 Miles’ 24 Miles S 25 Miles 26 MilesS 2'^Mile^7 28 Miles 29 Miles 

^ • «Talaik(u1iam & Pappankulam 


gS Tanks g 


TYPICAL SECTIONS OF PERIYAR i 

c. s. 

C. S; No. I. At O Mile 


6 . - \ 6 /T°P Bank 

Igi F. S, L 623>6Q 


Slope of Cutting).^' 60 

— tOO'”’ ” ' 


^ 620-4PG. L. 


C. S. No. 2 At 0 Mile 3 Fur.280 Ft. 

Ip F. S. L. IP .. 


, c. 

\ 'O 


-70-d- -> 


617'08 


. C. S. No. 3 At 1 Mile 4F.380 Ft.. 532'72 
. iO o n.\ " 

aj^p-% P_ 3_ L., >0- 


G. L.624»72 


615-80 

- 82-d- -► 

C. S. No.4 At 2 Miles 3 Fur. 160 Ft. 




C. L.B20‘54 


C. S. No. 5 At 3 Miles 7 F.40 Ft. 



OJ.. 608-19 



C. S. No. 6 At 4 Miles 7 Fur. 360 Ft., 

..sv ir\ y 




F. S. L. 


^ G.L..613-06 



- 62-6- 


’^605-11 


C. S. No. 19 At 29 Miles 4 Fur.540 Ft. 




Scale 



Reg: No. 4637 
Copies 4io 


4 ^ 80 2|) y 




40 

-t- 


likl Feex 






































































n urn 


MAIN CHANNEL 


O 

c 

CS 

u 

CQ 


1 

& 

(tt 

C 

2 

13 

(0 

CO 

o 

u 

u 


PLATE NO.XIl 


QQ 

o 

*5 

w 

V 

flS 


§ 

3 

be 

c 

3 

i. 

« 


3rd Reach 


4 th Reach 

X--K- 


6 th Reach 


^Mitet 31 Miles 


fj CHANNEL 

r At 6 Miles I Fur, 160 Ft, 


’596*25-^- 

XT) 

d 

---- Y ^ 

'^686-86 

• 

'=*‘537*47 

r 1 

'^685*93 

*‘580*97 


z 

CO 2, 

CO ^ 

(O'- 



CO 

“z 

Oz 

0 ^ 

d 0 


0 




z 


to Miles^ II Miles 12 Mile* 13 Miles 14 Miles 


nth. Reach 


15 Miles 16 MiieS 

.“£c 

3 ^ (fl 

® li c 

I-rt 


17 


579*22 


Miles 18 Miles'^ 


19 Miles 2C Miles 


34 




-> CO 
“ 554*26 


10* 


Vertical Scale 




)0 2( 

^0 8^ Feet 

1 1111 111.1.11 

1 1 

1 1 

1 , 1 


Horizontal Scale 


32 Miles 33 Miles 34 Miles 35 Miles 


cp 3'5*7.160 iFt. 

9 

(6 

Qi 

09 




■L. 1,. I i 












C. s. No. 13 At 20 Miies 5 Fur 


603-19 


62*6 


o. 8 At 7 Miles 3 Fur. 


619‘68 


F. S. L. 


<- - 7|.o 


611*68 


603*15 



9 At 10 Miles 6 Fur. 

g 607*86 

F. S. L. , 


* C. S. No. IS At24M!Ie8 3 Fur. 


^ 10 F. S. U 579*80 JO^ 


’\^^ 590*39 


682*39 


G. L. 596*21 


^-6^8- 

No. 10 At 17 Miles , ^.47 


<- - 46-8 - ^ 


0. S. No. 16 At 26 Miles 2 F. 100 Ft , >585‘88 


F. S. L. 


10 "V: 


593*06 


587*47 


_62-0-> 

3 . II At 18 Miles 3 Fur. 

10 ' 



04*28 


F. S, L. 



5S300 


\X^ 584.28 


<- -61-2- -> 

). 12 At 19 Miles 7 Fur. 
F. S. L. % 


. ^+592*99 

586*17 


677*88 


C. S. No. 17 At 27 Miles 4 Fur. 300 Ft. + 532*04 

• \A/r> 

F. S. L. 10 _^5*91 


C> S. No. 18 At 28 Miles 6 Fur (00 Ft. 


'•/.(--36^2^^-"S80*99 

C. S. No. 20 At 35 Miles 5 Fur.,ISO Ft 



^-27-3 ♦ 


;F^+568*50 


6 566*26 



657*10 


554*26 


tPOO Ft.IXBr. Chi 

^4 F, S, L. 570^2 




Photo-Print., Survey Office Madras. 

1899 
























































































Reg: No. 4638 
Copies 4)0 


• ! 



























































PLATE NO.Xdl 


SURVEY OF ANICUT 

PERANAI 

Scale 

^ 1(^0 290 3(j)o Feet 


I 


S 



Photo-Print Survey Officei Madras. 

!89S 































F 



Reg-t^p. 4639 
Copies 410 








































































































































































PLATE NQ. Xiy 


.UlCE 



;et 



P 


"^PSS GROOVES OF SHUTTERS 



(C 

D 

O 




REFERENCE 

1 I Coursed Rubble' 
6^ Cut StftnA 
[HD ilough Stone 
n-.'‘.vj Concrete 


•»N ON A. a c. D. 


































































































































































































































a *0 NO N( 


SCOURING 

SLUICE 

AT 

PERANAY 


SCALE OF 

FEET 


10 5 O 

1 ■ « » « 1 ■ ■ * ■ > 

10 

—— 1- 

20 

—1- 

-1-1. -( 


yjyyy/y/ 

51*919 + 


319C9-*-; 


CROSS SECTION ON R-S 

+636-12 


REFERENCE 
Burnt Stone in Mortar 

Do. for Arch Work 
Do. Dressed in Mortar 

Cut Stone Work 
Roughly Dressed Ashlar 
Cyclooean Rubble in Mortar 

Concrete Work 


5 - 0 ^^- 10 - 0 - 


Z ini 


A PORTION OF THE HEAD SLUICE 


-0-05- 

'i 


\ CO 


20-0 


Reg: NO 4640 

Copies 410 


4-6 











































































































































































































































































PLATE NO.XV 



Photo-Print Survey Office, M«d«$ 


1898 














































































































































































































































































































PLAN 

FALL and BiDG 


COMBINE 

AT 2i MILES FIRST REACkfIN 



in 

m 

o 

H 

O 

Z 

o 

z 


&» 



SECTION 


CO 

CO 


REFERENCE 

•‘'Oil _Gravel 

Sub Soil_ Kunkur Shale 

Amount of Estimate Rs_ 6850 


MM Arch Stones 

mm Cut Stone Work 

□□ Course Rubble Work 

LLLl Rough Stone in Mortar 

LlUl Do. Packing & Apron 

EI3 Concrete Broken Stone in Mortar 



REAR ELEDN 



C,D 


Reg : No. 4641 
Copies 4K) 





























































































































































DGE 


PLATE NO. XVI 


■UN CHANNEL 


30 


40FEET 




C.D 




)N 



79-3 3 


PhQto-Pn'nt Survey Office- Maaras 

1899 














































































































PLAN OF A SURPLUS SLUICE OF 12 VENj 

at 3 MILES 7 FUR AND 2-72 Cj 


W.w seCTIONS ON 


MAIN CAf; 

SCALE OF Fl 



+596-731- 

I 

+ 59^-73 - 


Bee-: No. 4642 


Copies 410 





































































































































PLATE mm/n 

=0R RAMARAJAPURAM TANK 

K RRST REACH 

30 40 FEET 

^ t - 1 



Slab Stone 
g^Ashlar 



Photo-Print Survey Office, Madras. 


1899 

















































































































































./I 


»-L. 








8 


sw 

t 


= 5 ^ 


s 


• ; 







mm 


Re«: No 4C43 
Copio* 410 


CO 

m 

O 

o 


o 

z 

p 

p 


A 


PLAN OF AN aqueduct of TWO : 


NORTH W\ 


SCALi 


10 S 






1+612-41 


30S-41 


+604.41 




BEOOPMAIN; 

• .* •^A 


♦600.41 

♦598.J6 


dUUAH. 











































































































































































































































































































PLATE NO. XVIII 






REFERENCE 
Rubble In MorUr 

Do. Do. Do. For Arch Work 

Dry Stone Work 

Concrete Work 
Dressed Ashlar Work 


1* Area of Sub Passage 330 Sqr Ft. 
Djsch; Thro Do. 2430 Cub: Ft. PerT 
Nature of Surface Soil - - - -Gravel 

— Do.—of Sub Soil-KunKar 

Estimate Rs. 19.800 


T.T 



■»604.4t > 

--JROUNO LEVEL + 602- 22 



1689-01 

_iW7.4I Photo-Print Survey Offlc 

1898 












































































































































































































































average depth of foundations Ig 




AT 13 M) i 

3lll 


• 01 ^- 


Si 


6 - 


2 » 


o. 


-7-0^1' 


Ml 


12-0 


Reg : No. 4644 
Copies Aro 



+ 595-00 BED OF nullah 


+ 592-00 L . 

+ 690-00 

























































































































































































3. SUPERPASSAGE 

3 2 FURLONGS. & 4-09 CHAINS 

REACH MAIN CHANNEL 


SCALE OF FEET 


0 



30 


Ft., 


PLATE NO. XIX 


PLAN 



REFERENCE 
Coursed Rubble in Mortar 
Do, .for Arch Work 

Concrete Work 
Slab Stones 
Dressed Ashlar 
11JI Dry stone Work 

Roughly dressed Ashlar 

Surface soil w . - • , Hard gravel 
Sub Soil .. Rock 

Amount of Estimate Rs. i3i5 00 
Drainage Area 5 Square Miles 
Sub passage Area 504 Square feet 

DischzThro: Do. 1608 Cub: Ft. Per l' 


3-3 


+ 6C0-00 


ON A.B. 


r4-595-00 

‘69^-43 • I t • liiiiiii 


HALF ELEVATION 




600-00 

ground LEVEL -f 698 43 


595-00 

.iL-i-f-592-00 

-.J+-590-00 


->-l- 584-25 




ROCKY 


average 


DEPTH OF foundations if FEET NEARLY 


Photo-Print Survey Office, Madras. 
1898 























































































































































































































































































































































































PLATE XX 


ERPASSAGE FOR MARANGALIAR CROSSING 






















































































































































OS- 


NO. l. FALL ANP SLUICES COMBO: AT O. M. I FURv& 440 FEET. 


9TH. BRANCH CHANNEL. 

scale 

L —^ 




16 Feat 



Regr-. No. 4^4e 
Copies 410 

















































































































































PLATE NO.XXI 



Photpi-PrlntjSurvey Office. Madras. 

1899 













































































































































































































































































































DROP NO. 1 


INTHE12W BRANCH CHANNEL 

Scalfi 

4 - 


IB Feet 



reference. 

DISCHARGE AT F. S.L 2l7'CR.a 


- DO-M. W L. 281 C P.S 


soil_GRAVEL 

SUB SOIL AT S'-9-SOFT ROCK 


COURSED RUBBLE 
CUT STONE 

ROUGHLY DRESSED ASHLAR 

Fra rough stone dry 

ESS CONCRETE 


PLATE NO. 


ii9__-C. S.ON C.C. 
1-6 
9 ^ 


o 


^ ELEVATION 



552-4.5 




-1+034.46 

-)*,> 


Photo-Print,Survey Office Madras. 

1899. 




























































































































XITHBRANCH channel 

FALL OF 10 FEET 


Scale 


, I I ? i 'P 





Res f No. 4848 
Copies 410 















































































































PLATE XXIII 



REFERENCE 



Soil_ _ Earth 

Sub Soil_ _ Gravel 

Discharge M. W. L._61. C. F S. 

Do. F. S. L _ 28 00 


lO, 

G. 1_ 

489-I9 

r- 

Cs. 

B. L. Upper 

-48fl5 

j 

B. L. Lower 

477-15 

q5 


m 

<o 



RENCE 

Coursed Rubble 
Jut Stone Work 
tough Stone Dry 
toughly Dressed Ashlar 
Concrete 


Photo-Print Survey Office, Madras 

1899 





























































































































CO 

m 

o 

H 

O 


p 

□ 


REFERENCE 


IRRIGATIO 
FIRSm 


IN THE 




3 


r~~l Burnt Stone in Mortar 
Cut Stone work 
Slab Stone work 
cm Dry Rubble 



A, 
:(p 


Concrete 

Deoth of water in front 6 
Do. At Rear 2' < 

Area to be irrigated 200 Acres- 
Estimate Rs. 700 


+604-251BED OF MAIN CHANN 

B03'26 4- 


F.S.L.+ 610-25 


GROUND LEVEL+ 608-25 


-7-6- 


-|-601*25 L.-^- 

l'5-O 



4-ffl 


- 


Reg: No. 4649' 
Copies 410 


- 


















































































































PLATE NO. XXIV 



















































































































4-0 


l-6'l-6i6-a 


3 

o 

z 

o 

z 

o 

o 


o 



«: 51-6 



o 


REFERENCE 


Burnt Stone fn Mortat 



Roughly Dressed Ashlar 


Slab Stpne Work 

Concrete work 

I I tlron work 

Soil gravel 

Sub Soil hard Gravel 
designed by 

Bottom Width of Chi. 51‘20 
Cutting li to 1 
Depth of water 6 Feet 
Amount of the Est Rs. 950 





































PLATE NO. XXV 


IN TROUGH 


Scale 


20 


3iO Feet 



K PINAL SECTION 


HAI F ELEVATION 


TOP OF BANK 



<-^ROiUND LCT EI' 


_ BOTTOM WIDTH OF 


1 _: 

CHANNEL 5120 FEET- 


Photo-Print Survey Office, Madras 

1899 


BED LEVEL OF CHANNEL 






























































































































































































5 


TYPE DESIGN 
OF 

6 FEET FALL 

^ Scale 


10 


REAR ELEVATION 


FRONT EL\K 


G-L 



Reg: No. 4651 
Copies 410 


< 







































































































































PLATE NO. XXVI 



I 4-6 > . 

■ 

• "ij- 

,-5 '' 

>i-6> 

REFERENCE 
I^SSN Coursed Rubble 
^^3 Cut Stone Work 

Roughly Dressed Ashlar 
cm Rough Stone Dry 
^2) Concrete 




Photo-Print Survey Office, Madras 

1899 








































































































































































































































































































plate no. xxvii 



10 Feet ELEVATION 


REAR FRONT 



Photo-Print,Survey Office Madras. 

1899 

































































I 


IN THE XII E 





HALF ELEVATION. 



Copies 410 























































































































































































































































































PLATE NO. XXVIn 


n 

oo 

CO CO 

tn — 




626'63 
j 624’63 


reference 

Soil.Earth 

Sub Soli ...At Gravel 
Estimate Rs.I020 









( 1 .- 

, , 





Coursed Rubble 
Roughly Dressed Ashlar 
Rough Stone Dry 
Concrete 
Road Metal 


Photo-Print Survey Office. Madras 

1899 



























































































































































VK- 




T-‘ 




i 

c 


''. *ry 

■ <» 


■;v' 

* ^ 

•‘ 

A) • 

'/ 

s - V 

.fS \ % 

.. ^ .4 


t‘ 


5 '' ]'5 


V* ' . 

;V, 




I 

I I 



.ft 



I 


« 


1 



















